Conscientization

The English term â€Å"conscientization† is a translation of the Portuguese term conscientizacao, which is also translated as â€Å"consciousness raising† and â€Å"critical consciousness†. The term was popularized by Brazilian educator, activist, and theorist Paulo Freire in his 1970 work Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Freire was teaching the poor and illiterate members of Brazilian society to read at a time when literacy was a requirement for suffrage and dictators ruled many South American countries.Critical consciousness proceeds through the identification of â€Å"generative themes†, which Freire identifies as â€Å"iconic representations that have a powerful emotional impact in the daily lives of learners. † In this way, individual consciousness helps end the â€Å"culture of silence† in which the socially dispossessed internalize the negative images of themselves created and propagated by the oppressor in situations of extreme poverty.Libe rating learners from this mimicry of the powerful, and the fratricidal violence that results therefrom is a major goal of critical consciousness. Critical consciousness is a fundamental aspect of Freire's concept of popular education. Arlene Goldbard, an author on the subject of community cultural development finds the concept of conscientization to be a foundation of community cultural development. From the glossary of Goldbard's 2006 book New Creative Community. â€Å"Conscientization is an ongoing process by which a learner moves toward critical consciousness. This process is the heart of liberatory education. It differs from â€Å"consciousness raising† in that the latter may involve transmission of preselected knowledge. Conscientization means breaking through prevailing mythologies to reach new levels of awareness—in particular, awareness of oppression, being an â€Å"object† of others’ will rather than a self-determining â€Å"subject. The proces s of conscientization involves identifying contradictions in experience through dialogue and becoming part of the process of changing the world. â€Å"[2] History of application The ancient Greeks first identified the essence of critical consciousness when philosophers encouraged their students to develop an â€Å"impulse and willingness to stand back from humanity and nature†¦ [and] to make them objects of thought and criticism, and to search for their meaning and significance. 3] In his books Pedagogy of the Oppressed[4] and Education for Critical Consciousness,[5] Freire explains critical consciousness as a sociopolitical educative tool that engages learners in questioning the nature of their historical and social situation, which Freire addressed as â€Å"reading the world†. The goal of critical consciousness, according to Freire, should be acting as subjects in the creation of democratic society. In education, Freire implies intergenerational equity between studen ts and teachers in which both learn, both question, both reflect and both participate in meaning-making.Using this idea, and describing current instructional methods as homogenization and lockstep standardization, alternative approaches are proposed, such as the Sudbury model of democratic education schools, an alternative approach in which children, by enjoying personal freedom thus encouraged to exercise personal responsibility for their actions, learn at their own pace rather than following a previously imposed chronologically-based curriculum. [6][7][8] In a similar form students learn all the subjects, techniques and skills in these schools.The staff are minor actors, the â€Å"teacher† is an adviser and helps just when asked. [9][10] Sudbury model of democratic education schools maintain that values, social justice, critical consciousness, intergenerational equity, and political consciousness included, must be learned through experience,[11][12][13][14] as Aristotle sai d: â€Å"For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them. â€Å"[15] Picking up on Freire's definition of critical consciousness, Joe L. Kincheloe has expanded the definition of the concept in his work on postformalism.In Kincheloe's formulation postformalism connects cognition to critical theoretical questions of power and social justice. In this context Kincheloe constructs a critical theory of cognition that explores questions of meaning, emancipation vis-a-vis ideological inscription, and a particular focus on the socio-political construction of the self. With these concerns in mind Kincheloe's postformal critical consciousness engages questions of purpose, issues of human dignity, freedom, authority, reconceptualized notions of reason, intellectual quality, and social responsibility.Postformal critical consciousness stimulates a conversation between critical pedagogy and a wide range of social, cultural, political economic, psychological, and phi losophical concerns. Kincheloe employs this â€Å"multilogical conversation† to shape new modes of self-awareness, more effective forms of social, political, and pedagogical action, and an elastic model of an evolving critical consciousness (Kincheloe and Steinberg, 1993; Kincheloe, 1999; Thomas and Kincheloe, 2006).Freire's development of critical consciousness has been expanded upon in several academic disciplines and common applications[16] Public health community collaborations focused on HIV prevention for women,[17] the role of critical consciousness in adult education,[18] and the effect of peer pressure on cigarette smokers[19] Freire's notion of critical consciousness is, in part, a type of political consciousness. * Conscientization refers to a type of learning which is focused on perceiving and exposing social and political contradictions.Conscientization also includes taking action against oppressive elements in one's life as part of that learning. —  "Conscientization – Psychology Wiki†, * A conscientization strategy concerned with increasing people's sensitivity to the implications of gender inequality, and demanding that problems of gender discrimination be identified and overcome in policies and programs. Gender awareness means a high level of gender conscientization. — â€Å"Article – Gender 101 – Gender Sensitivity†, coa. gov. ph * down * up

Advantages and Disadvantages of Air Travelling

When we are on holiday or intend to travel abroad as a tourist, we should firstly choose the means of traveling. In my view, traveling by air is both advantages as well as disadvantages. Advantages of traveling by air plane. The biggest advantage of flying is that it is often the fastest way to get from one place to another, especially when long distances are involved. It helps us save a lot of time, so we can do more things. Secondly, I think the comfort of air traveling makes people satisfactory. When traveling by air, we can sit comfortably in an arm- chair, reading magazines or watching a free film on television. The process of making arrangements to fly can be quite convenient. A plane ticket can be purchased by telephone or on the Internet. We don’s have to cope with crowed at air port as other stations for buying tickets. Disadvantages of traveling by air plane. Apart from these advantages, however, traveling by air has its disadvantages, too. First of all, Flying is often the most expensive form of transportation, especially if reservations are not made well in advance. Some people might not be able to afford to fly on the budget airline. Then air travels have the reputation of being dangerous and even hardened travelers are intimidated by them. There are plane crashes in which the crew and passengers have died to a man. Finally, traveling by air, we can’t stop wherever we want to enjoy beautiful landscapes on our way as we do in a trip by car or boat. Sceneries seen from plane are merely vague sights. Topic 40: Forest preservation

Bounty Paper Towel Add

Bounty, the quick picker upper! When we see a commercial on our T. V. screens today, we always see in print or hear the narrator telling us that their product or the service they are promoting to us is one of the best of its kind. They use all types of appeals and techniques to reel us in, making whatever they are trying to sell to us either pretty, shiny, worth-buying, or they use bold simple states telling us things such as, â€Å"Once you get it, you won’t be able to live without it. By using these statements and methods of gaining viewers, the ad or commercial gains what it truly aspired for; attention and the need and/or desire to buy the product. In the ad â€Å"Bounty Big Spills† the bold statement and exaggerated visuals are created to intrigue the consumer to buy a useful household item. Rhetorical devices can be used in multiple ways and they can be represented to us in many different forms. In advertisements, the most blatant rhetorical language is shown thr ough the element of visual rhetorical devices and figures.In the ad for â€Å"Bounty Big Spills† paper towels, we can closely analyze the main devices the author/creator uses to appeal to the audience. First off, the hyperbole is the overall device used to appeal to us; it designates a relatable incident of society and family issues in our mind but by maximizing the paper towels to the largest potential, which brings about the easy use and reliability of it. In the ad by â€Å"Bounty† there displays a large scaled coffee cup that has spilled and clearly needs some kind of cleanup.When looked at more closely, you notice a just as gigantic pack of â€Å"Bounty Paper Towels† next to the spill, indicating that the towels are big enough to handle any mess. Big or small. The motto â€Å"Makes small work of BIG spills† is displayed on the paper towels and presents the message to the audience that even the biggest Popsicle or coffee mess is no trouble for a sheet of paper towels by â€Å"Bounty†. It presents this through immense exaggerations of messes that would usually be scaled minimally rather than to the max.It also uses relatable visuals of coffee cups, popsicles, and a familiar New York and Los Angeles setting to relate to the audience and the nature of messes and society. The mix of visuals and hyperboles reminds the reader/audience that the product is grand, extremely effective, and better than anything out there. Paper towels aren’t grand in any aspect, but they do have effectiveness in clean up that most mothers/dads/parents love to see and through this ad, feel that the messes shown are no match for Bounty.When considering the intended obvious for this ad, it was difficult to narrow down the select group that the author is trying to adhere to. However, when closely observing the ad, it’s evident that moms, dads, parents in general, and on-the-go working people is the intended audience for this advertisement. This is because the visual image shows a Popsicle, which helps relate to a child’s mess throughout the day. By relating the Popsicle mess to that of a young child’s mess, the ad did a profound job of connecting the two, thus presenting an argument that even the biggest Popsicle dropped by a child is no match for Bounty.On the other hand, a â€Å"Starbucks† coffee cup is also portrayed as one of the messes, making the working class or on-the-go parents, an audience as well. Because of this representation of the on-the-go folk, Bounty broadened its audience level and appealed to more consumers. Some ads are made to send a direct message to their intended audience. As paper towel ads go, there are more explicit or direct messages that state â€Å"This paper towel can clean up any spills! † On the other hand, Bounty’s use of implicit and explicit messages conveys a sense of established creditability with the audience.The most obviously demonstrated an d expressed message of â€Å"Makes small work of BIG spills† contradicts the implicit message that sure, it makes small work of big spills, but paper waste adds pollution to our population versus using cloth towels. The hidden message of complication within our society falls short of the intended message; however, the pollution factor has to be taken into consideration before buying such a fast and easy acting product. Sure, for some, that message would never be brought to light making the decision to buy Bounty, a no brainer.But for some, that might be the deciding factor in whether or not they purchase it. Bounty paper towels have been commonly known to pick up messes. However, when the hyperboles and enlarged items are shown in this way, it makes it seem like the brand is now bigger and better than ever. Designed with children and parents in mind, the author uses logical appeals of â€Å"big messes† to appeal to the intended audience. He does this in a way that sets the audience up for an ultimatum.You choices are to either buy the paper towels or have a 14 foot Popsicle on the floor in your kitchen. The answer is obvious here. By alluring the audience through definitive logic, the author implies that without â€Å"Bounty†, you will have messes galore. The display of two oversized items defends his implication. Bounty does an exceptional job of achieving their audience and their positive reaction. Despite the fact that the pollution factor might be an issue to a select few folks, Bounty’s message would nonetheless receive a positive and controlled response.Though there are other brands of paper towels, â€Å"Bounty’s† creation of a special advertisement that enhances their product to make it seem larger and better quality than any other pursues the intended reaction of â€Å"I need to buy this! † They create this reaction through hyperboles and implicit messages that suggest that even a 14 foot coffee spill c an be cleaned up with a simple paper towel. Works Cited Bounty Paper Towels, Bounty. Advertisement. 4 April 2009. 1. Print

Centralisation and Decentralisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Centralisation and Decentralisation - Essay Example We dissect a case in which the center is not a solitary individual yet a gathering, a populace. There are, on a fundamental level, a few phases of an org issue where one can present an aggregate control issue: the agreement arranges, the checking stage, the requirement stage. As the first venture in this plan, for the purpose of simplification and similarity with different regions of provision, we cast our examination in a class of models that has turned into the workhorse multi foremost executor structure: the "normal org" model, which concentrates on the contracting stage. One variant of the normal office model, known as inherent regular org, is a great first estimate to the issue of control of policymakers by residents. Aghion and Tirole's (1997) worry is a substantive one: while org-graphs, titles, and formal occupation obligations are effortlessly measured, it is troublesome to concentrate by means of reviews or different means the personalities of the individuals who have subje ctive information. The vague, indescribable, delicate nature of subjective information can result in overview reactions to be problematic and unverifiable, but then this learning is key to firm esteem. Authoritative scholars contend that human co-operation and correspondence channels, for example, gatherings are the essential hierarchical instrument by which the administration chain perceives the vicinity of subjective information and lets the holder of this learning substantively impact the choice.

Response to the Web Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Response to the Web - Essay Example Facts quoted in this article such as, the surrender of China's long-time head Zhou Youngkang are backed up with the reference of an article posted in Financial Times. The article accurately reported about the role of those networks that are responsible for cruel repression of prodemocracy (Mackinnon). Despite, reference from Financial Times, the credibility of this article is doubted as Financial Times has not cited the names of senior communist party members. Also, it is noticeable that in the article Mr. Bo has been suspected for wasting much capital for the sake of protecting his own responsibilities towards nation. He has also been suspected for corruption, insubordination, and most prominently in case of British businessman's murder. The article highlights that in this murder case his wife has also been suspected, but the author has not provided any logical reason or reference behind this fact about Bo and his wife (Mackinnon). Moreover, the web source informs that Mr. Xi is bel ieved to have been chosen as a new president under the compromise between the factions. This fact has also not been supported by any credible source; however it is correctly quoted that the protection of the state is a foremost priority of all communist party members. The article says that China is a dangerous and de-destabilized place, mainly due to Zhou YongKang decisions and actions in past. However, no other source has ever complimented China as an insecure or underdeveloped state, but the author has only referred the words of Joshua Rosenzweig an independent human rights researcher based in Hong Kong. The author should have fairly cited a logical reason behind this claim of Mr. Rosenzweig (Mackinnon). Also, the author has not even briefly mentioned in what context he has pointed out the acts of Zhou Yongkang over past decades. Further, author has quoted in another fact about China with reference to Mr.Rosenweig and has written that Mr. Zhou's ministry "had become so powerful th at it had the makings of second party centre rivaling the number one and number two means the president and premier (Mackinnon). Here, the author should have put a suitable example to prove the statement of Mr.Rosenweig as a stronger claim over political system and situations of Chinese government. Further, in the article it has reflected that the rights of citizens will be protected and the power of government will become limited. This seems a fair reporting as a full flash editorial article of the communist party`s flagship newspaper has been referred here to support the cause and effect of new slogan in Chinese government (Mackinnon). Additionally, it is noticeable here that China is a communist country and it does not let international media to cover important political matters of the state. Therefore, whatever facts that are presented in this article related to two reformist parties cannot be completely trusted (Mackinnon). Chinese politics has no transparency; thus it cannot b e said that this article truly reflect whatever is going on behind the curtain to secure the issue matters related to Chinese government. The author has randomly referred an observer, without mentioning about his/her role of designation or relationship with the Chinese politics and has written that it is expected that reform wing will intend to behave differently under new leadership. Neither backup has been given for this claim nor has the complete information been provided to clear about the expected difference in acts

WW1 and transition to modern America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

WW1 and transition to modern America - Essay Example on to sit in White House .He came to power in quite unconventional manner with the body of his predecessor laying besides him and he took oath right there. He came about to power in a progressive era. He also gave the foreign policy a new dimension which was previously left upon an inwardly designed pattern during the ruling days of previous presidents (Brinkley and Miller, program 18). United States of America at first stayed away from the First World War on account of its policy of isolation that it had long contained and carried since the early 19th century. Through this phase it had believed in an inward foreign policy with little interference and presence in the affairs of the global politics and happenings. This was reflected upon in the early part of the First World War. However, the second part of the World War One, forced United States of America stepping into the War. This was forced by number of events. The most prominent one in this regard was that of the indecisive and uncontrolled shelling by the German troops from across the submarines. This hit upon the American ships and vessels. The second major factor was the infamous telegram- the Zimmerman Telegram. The hostility of United States of America towards the Russia’s strength and the revolution which in turn gave rise to the socialist movement was another reason which promoted United States of America landing into the war and breaking its centuries hold custom of isolation (Divine et al,p. 775). President Woodrow Wilson was the pioneer towards breaking the shackles and introducing the American’s influence in the global affairs through a more proactive foreign policy. As a result of this mindset, the concept of 14 Points of Woodrow Wilson came about forth. This was an unprecedented form of American foreign policy in a long time. The intention of W. Wilson was to bring about global peace. It was aimed at preventing any other similar war affair in the long run. It also aimed at curtailing the

Technology in Literacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Technology in Literacy - Essay Example f civilization, as an individual can only progress if he or she has the ability to read and write, thereby gaining knowledge and experience about the dynamics of life and the world in general (Kemp 3). The definition of literacy does not stop at the ability to read and write, but extends to include the capacity of an individual to exercise all the knowledge and skills that they gain through reading and writing to shape the course of their lives, or draw up their destinies. As such, literacy becomes a flexible collection of closely linked strategies and skills to the context and purpose of learning and progress. In such a manner, technology comes in a revolutionary way to define the manner or style by which these individual acquire the capacity to read or write. The effect of technology under these considerations is whether it enables many people to acquire literacy, or spoils the same effort of literacy acquisition by exposing these individuals to knowledge and skills far beyond their understanding. In such a case, technology ends up being a pitfall rather than a ladder to the advancement of literacy in the modern world (Felderman and Vasquez 45). The research to establish the effect of technology in literacy used both qualitative, as well as, quantitative methods to discern the degree of influence. The participants in the research involved both the old and the young, in different geographical settings. A group of old men and women, both from town and from the rural settlements took part in the research, and similarly to the young boys and girls of the same age group and from different backgrounds. This enabled the researcher to collect the honest opinions of each side of the market and determine the true effects of technology in the advancement of literacy. Analysis of data was particular in establishing the level of gains made by literacy due to incorporation of technology, as well as, the negative effects of the inclusion of technology in the advancement of

Michael Porter, Competitive Advantage ( Please see the assignment Coursework

Michael Porter, Competitive Advantage ( Please see the assignment criteria ) - Coursework Example At a certain point of time (during the year 1981) the bank chose to capture the market of wholesale credit. The bank although succeeded in achieving its aim but the achievement of leadership position in this loan segment could not be transformed into competitive advantage. Conversely, this strive towards leadership made the bank grant even those loans which other banks were not granting at that point of time to the borrowers. Thus, the bank got involved in escalation of cost and gradually the bank became ineffective (Porter, 1998). The bank failed to transform its leadership strategy into competitive advantage because the structure of the industry did not support leadership (University of Pennsylvania, 2011). For achieving the competitive position, the bank should have focused on attaining both differentiation as well as cost leadership. Leadership indicated that the bank had to deal with various corporations which are quite large and are sensitive towards prices of the loans. The po or position of the bank made various wholesale operators withdraw their funds from the bank that left the bank in a situation of liquidity disaster.

Introduction to Marketing PowerPoint Presentation

Introduction to Marketing - PowerPoint Presentation Example outsourcing social media marketing services from the social media companies that have since been established and now, looking to dominate the industry. The overall market size for the social media advertising companies cannot be estimated precisely because to do so, one will need to count the ever-growing number of companies and institutions being established daily, and who essentially need to market their products. Thousands of existing companies and institutions are already outsourcing social media services, so an estimate of 50% of all businesses countrywide would be an appropriate market size, for now. 1. Placing adverts for companies and institutions on all the six most popular social media platforms. These include Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Google Plus+ and You Tube. The choice of platforms to use depends on the social media sites preferred by the client and most importantly, the nature of products and serviced being advertised. 2. Content creation and campaign management services. In an effort to marketing a particular product or service, there has to be a campaign to sensitize its use and the content in that campaign needs to be original. 4. Research, monitoring and analysis of social media marketing.- success depends on your ability to measure and understand your efforts. Community measurement is an essential tool in social media marketing. 2. The top areas businesses want to flourish in are tactics and engagement processes - At least 89% of companies want to use the most effective social tactics and engagement plans for their social media audience. 4. Businesses want to make the most out of Google+ - While 54% of big corporations are using Google+, 65% of smaller companies want to know more about it and 61% plan on increasing Google+ activities this year. 5. Podcasting is on growth trajectory-Though only 6% of companies have utilized podcasting in their advertising, 21% plan to increase their podcasting activities this year. That is

Most Significant Events in American History Essay

Most Significant Events in American History - Essay Example Nevertheless, America has not been immune to pitfalls and struggle during its journey of success and it is by the dint of hard work, keen foresight and sharp business acumen of its citizens that it has come to occupy the enviable position it enjoys in the world today. American history is replete with events which marked the shaping of this massive nation into its present entity. Some of the prominent events which gave direction to the overall character of the nation involved social change as well as the individual contributions of some of the most colorful and characteristic personalities churned up by the American culture. World War II was an event which left no corner of the globe unscathed with almost every country being involved in one way or the other. It fuelled a struggle for survival in its aftermath and America was no exception to the dent this event made on world history. In the post war scenario most countries initiated specific plans to rebuild their social and economic infrastructure. The following decades after the end of World War II saw a variety of influences that shaped American history. In the 1950s, one of the most prominent issues addressed was that of segregation of the minority black population in society that had plagued America for long. The notion of black people being inferior had carried over from the colonial era and was still practiced in the American society. It was unusual for a black person to be seen in certain sections of society and blacks were denied admission to some of the top educational institutions in the country. This naturally evinced pain and resentment in the intellectuals within the black population who initiated a number of legal suits to challenge this discrimination. In the year 1950, the Supreme Court of the United States was besotted with a series of cases which challenged the legal

Women's Rights. Kathy Peiss Book Cheap amusements Essay

Women's Rights. Kathy Peiss Book Cheap amusements - Essay Example Apart from being an important step towards the feminist movement, these indicators were also powerful and important with regards to the future of the Civil Rights movement within the United States and seeking to integrate all of society into what had previously been a club dominated by old, white men. One of the authors that best elaborates on this particular situation within American history is Kathy Peiss in her book, Cheap Amusements. As a function of this understanding of womanhood that Kathy Peiss puts forward in her book, this brief analysis will seek to answer the following questions: what changes around work and leisure occurred during the progressive Era, how did women’s embrace of style fashion romanced and mixed sex fun create new opportunities for independence for these women, and how did working class women’s embrace of those very same things also contribute to their being oppressed or discriminate against. Accordingly, by examining each of these determinan ts, it is the hope of this author that the analysis will be able to point to the greatest strengths and aspects of definitions that Peiss puts forward. Furthermore it is the hope of this author that through analysis of Peiss’ writing, the individual can gain a more clear and complete understanding of the means by which societal change and cultural change integrates itself within the modern era. One of the greatest changes that place during the Progressive Era was the integration of women into the workforce. Although many individuals might be led to believe that this did not take place until the Second World War, the fact of the matter is that the First World War offered a wealth of opportunities within the labor force provided by the vacancies left by men in the armed services. As a result of this change within the Progressive Era, the women within society were able to enjoy a great degree of liberalization with regards to both professional opportunity as well as cultural int egration that had previously not been realized. With regards to the realities that existed for women within society prior to this point, Peiss notes the following: â€Å"the working class woman discussed in the following pages typically were immigrants or daughters of immigrants, lived in†¦tenement districts, and labored for wages while unmarried† (Peiss 9). As a result of this rigid stratification that existed, women were utterly unable to penetrate the cultural constraints that previously defined their existence. As a result of the changes that were realized, not only were labor opportunities made available but also the style of fashion and clothing came to represent a more manly and boyish dynamic that had previously been unheard of. Accordingly, the most popular woman’s hairstyles became bobs whereas with regards to the style of clothing, flapper fashion came into existence; representing a unique and noticeable divergent from the Victorian era where full lengt h dresses were the norm. Whereas many people would seek to disregard fashion as indicative of any greater level of independence or feminism within the population, the fact of the matter is that the changes that were enjoyed an experienced during the Progressive Era had a noticeable impact on the level of freedom, culture, and social mobility that the women of that time were able to experience within society. Moreover, the changing norms of the time, alongside the differential that was experienced with regards to the degree that women and men could spend time together and mixed company without the horse societal judgments that it previously existed, allowed for a great liberalize ancient with

Circulatory System Essay Example for Free

Circulatory System Essay His first point criticised Paley’s analogy of the watch. The first part of the analogy claimed that if you found a rock while walking through a heath, you would not think anything of it. However, if you had seen a watch you would examine it and find that it had moving parts that demonstrate that the watch has a purpose, the parts work together for a purpose and they are ordered to make the watch function because if they weren’t, the watch won’t perform its function. He concluded the first part of his analogy by saying that the watch had a maker who must have existed at some time and place. The second part of the analogy claimed that if we suppose the watch had another imaginary function, and this function was the producing of other watches, then our admiration for the watchmaker would be increased. He concluded this part of his argument by saying that anyone who finds such a watch would conclude that the design of the watch implies ‘the presence of intelligence and mind’. Paley said that just like the watch being designed necessitates a designer as an explanation of its existence, all of nature requires a much greater designer. The complexity of nature is far greater than any machine human beings can make and therefore a grand designer is needed, this designer is God. Hume criticised this point by saying that the analogy is limited. For example, you could conclude from a study of the human blood circulatory system that animals had the same system. This would be a weak and mistaken analogy however to compare a human’s and an animal’s circulato ry system to the way sap circulates in a plant. Hume maintained his criticism of Paley’s analogy of the watch by an analogy of his own. This analogy said that we can conclude that a house had a builder and an architect but we cannot, however, deduce a builder or architect of the universe in the same way because there is no similarity between the two. He mentioned that if the house is faulty, what does this suggest about the designer? And so, if God did design the world, is he directly responsible for the evil within it? Paley, however, rejected this point because the issue was whether the universe exhibited signs of design. He was not concerned with questions relating to issues of quality concerning the design. Paley’s response was criticised to be unsatisfactory. Hume argued that there are other possible explanations than God for apparent design in the universe. Hume claimed that one of these possible explanations might be that as well as the possibility that there is a grand designer of the universe, it is equally possible that ‘matter may contain the spring of order originally within itself, as well as mind does’ and that unless there is perfect similarity between the object of comparison and what is being compared, you cannot draw a conclusion with any certainty. Another possible explanation for apparent design in the universe might be that any effects that we observe in nature may be caused by a variety of causes. This view supports the discovery of natural selection and the DNA and its role of shaping the growth of all living organisms. Hume claimed that there might not be just one single designer for the world. For example, we may look at a great ship and think about the great design of it, but the ship may be the result of years, even generations of trial and error. The ship may be the product of many hands and not just one great designer. From this, Hume concludes that there is no evidence to suggest the ‘unity of the deity’. Hume suggested three more theories as explanations for the design of the universe; aptness of analogy, the epicurean thesis and the argument from effect to cause. The aptness of analogy said that a watch is not a suitable analogy for the world. For example, just because a cabbage is fitted together/designed perfectly, does not mean that it has a maker/designer. By using a machine as an analogy, you would have already determined the outcome you want; you want there to be a designer and you’re already assuming that something natural, i.e. the cabbage, has a designer. The epicurean thesis was explained using an example. This example spoke about particles and said that if they were freely moving around over infinite time, by chance, one of the combinations they make would just happen to represent a stable order and this stable order is what we now live in. This example represented the view that the universe might have happened by chance. The argument from effect to cause claimed that we cannot go from an effect to a greater cause than that needed to produce the cause. We cannot say whether he made the watch alone or had some little helpers. This would mean that we do not and cannot know whether he is still active or even still alive, we can only say if the universe does/doesn’t have a designer and can’t list its traits by saying that he is benevolent, omnipotent, omniscient and infinite as many would portray him. Overall, Hume criticises the teleological argument in a number of ways. He very explicitly criticises Paley’s views on the teleological argument, using them to explain why he believes that the argument is deeply flawed.

Evaluate Kodaks Position In Traditional Photography Media Essay

Evaluate Kodaks Position In Traditional Photography Media Essay In 1880, George Eastman invented the first camera which uses a dry-plate formula and also a machine to make these plates (Gavetti et al, 2005). George established Eastman Kodak Company in Rochester, New York. The dry plate technology was later replaced by film rolls named as Kodak. In 1888, Kodak Company introduced the camera with the tag line, You press the button we do the rest'(Gavetti et al, 2005). The main goals of company to be successful were to mass produce at low cost, worldwide distribution, aggressive advertising, customers need oriented and continuous RD. In the article Kodak and the digital revolution by G. Gavetti, R. Henderson and S. Georgi, Eastman quoted that, Nothing is more important than the value of our name and the quality it stands for. We must make quality our fighting argument. Kodak used the razor blade model for the business and sold out cameras at cheaper price, while the cost of film and developing was higher. Kodak developed color films in 1921 and was first introduced for consumers in 1963. By the end of 1967, Kodak holds 90% of film making and 85% of camera sales (Gavetti et al, 2005). In 1981, Sony Corporation introduced the first digital camera named Mavica. Kodak had this technology before Sony launched it, but they were afraid of cannibalization of the silver halide technology. Fuji Film came in to market with a 400 speed color film and low cost photographic papers. It was the official sponsor of Olympics 1984. By the end of 1993, Fuji acquired 21% of worldwide market (Gavetti et al, 2005). In 1993, Kodak hired Fisher as the new CEO of the Company. Fisher changed the razor blade business model to network and consumables model. Fisher tried to change the way of thinking at Kodak Company but it did not worked. Later, Fisher was replaced by Former General Manager of Kodak Canada, Daniel Carp. Carp resumed with the same business model. Kodak now excelled in cameras, online services and image printing at kiosk or inkjet printers. Evaluate Kodaks position in traditional photography. Why has the company historically been so successful? In 1885, Eastman established Kodak with the aim of producing a user friendly product. The slogan did the thing of marketing for the company, i.e. You click the button we do the rest.'(Gavetti et al, 2005). The company was very successful and there were literary no competitors to them. Kodak believed in quality and customer need satisfaction. Kodaks marketing strategy kept the customers away from switching to other cheaper brands. The razor blade model helped the company to fetch profits from films and image processing. The introduction of color imaging lagged the competitors far behind. To conclude, during 1970s, Kodak was very successful because of continuous innovation, customer satisfaction and aggressive marketing. This allowed Kodak to setup a standard barrier for other companies to enter the market. Compare traditional and digital imaging. What are the main structural differences? How have value creation and appropriation changed in digital relative to traditional photography. Traditional imaging used silver halide technology while digital imaging used electronic image sensors. Both these technologies are different from the technological point and also in structure and organization of company. In the traditional imaging, films were the only means of storage and Kodak had mastered in that field. While in the digital technology, as the barriers can be easily overcome, there were many new entrants in the market like Fuji and Sony. Digital imaging led to a fast change in the market. The prices fall drastically and customers now need more complementary resources. This new technology was more based on horizontal structure of the company rather than vertical. This led to a complete change in the organization of the company. Companies developed the habit of first mover policy for a particular segment of supply chain. Customers were provided with different complementary resource and continuous improvement in the technology created appropriate value for the company. Thus, digital imaging has led to segmentation of customers based on prices, quality of images, user friendliness and type of storage. Each company should focus on a particular segment and try to maximize its appropriation and thereby the profit margins. Evaluate Kodaks response to Sonys introduction of Mavica in 1981. Kodak used the Razor Blade model in the business of cameras and image processing. They sold cameras at cheaper price and obtained high profits for films and image processing. Kodak earned its profits from film and not from cameras. This model was successful for Kodak and they earned $1 billion in 1962 and captured 85% of the USA camera market(Gavetti et al, 2005). Kodak was recognized for its quality and people preferred Kodak over low cost other brands. In 1981, Sony introduced Mavica, a filmless camera. It stored images in a floppy disk and these images can be seen directly on TV sets. Kodak was afraid of cannibalism of its silver halide technology. The profit margin of silver halide technology was at least 50% more compared to digital imaging. So Kodak decided to continue with the traditional photography. Later Kodak was threatened by the digital photography and so they decided to diversify their business in fields like pharmaceutics, clinical diagnostics and mass storage. This led Kodak away from its core business of photography. Kodak also invested in the digital imaging technology but majority of business was still focused on film photography. Kodaks response to Sonys introduction of Mavica was inappropriate. Kodak management was very much engaged in the traditional photography that they ignored the threat of digital imaging. According to Porters five forces, 1) Rivals like Fuji and Sony were increasing market share by introducing cheap and differentiated products from Kodak. Rivalry is the biggest threat to any company. 2) Other substitutes like mobile phones with camera and camcorders were introduced by other companies. 3) Consumers were moving towards digital cameras were they can save money on printing. Instead of continuing with the traditional photography and looking for higher profits, Kodak should have moved on with new technologies to gain an edge over rivals as they were already holding a large amount of market share. Fisherss Attempt to transform Kodak. In 1993, Kodak replaced Whitmore by hiring George Fisher. Fisher was former CEO of Motorola. Fisher misjudged Kodak as an imaging company and not a film making company. Fisher wanted Kodak to focus on imaging rather than diversified business. Fisher closed most of the diversified business like pharmaceuticals and chemical industry. Fisher helped Kodak to reduce the cost of production by developing joint ventures in China. Fisher also tried to re organize the company and rethink how to expand Kodaks market. Fisher wanted Kodak to make profits in hardware like Motorola and so he developed costly digital cameras which were unsuccessful due to high competition. Fisher had worked in an environment where people argue with each other and make the decision more effective. While Kodak was the company where people were trained to take orders from top management and never argue about it. Thus fishers attempt to make Kodak like Motorola has failed as Kodak is not a hardware company but a service company. Moreover, employees of Kodak were not accustomed to argue with the top management in making decisions. Kodaks current position in Digital imaging. Initially when Kodak entered the market in 1888, their business model was razor blade model. They started selling cameras at cheaper price and earned profits from films and image development. During the era of traditional photography, Kodak earned huge profits from making films and chemicals for image development. After the development of 1st digital camera by Sony in 1981, the market for traditional film photography started shrinking. Kodak took long time before they entered in the digital imaging market. Thats the reason they came down to position 3 in the industry behind Fuji and Nikon (plunkett). Today, Kodaks business is divided in 3 major segments namely, Graphic communication group (GCG), consumer digital imaging group (CDG) and film, photofinishing and entertainment group (FPEG). Sales of 2009 have decreased compared to 2008 due to economic slowdown. Over 2008, Kodaks 2009 GCG sales decreased by 18%, CDG by 15% and FPEG by 25%. Position of Kodak, had they adopted digital imaging strategy in 80s and 90s. The digital imaging era began in 1981, when Sony launched the 1st filmless camera to the market. During this period, Kodak ignored the change in the market and kept on going with the traditional imaging. The company was looking for profits and forgot to consider the future trends. During 1980s, Whitmore tried to diversify the company to various unrelated business. If they had not invested in all those industries and invested in digital imaging, the scenario would be completely different. Kodaks view of digital imaging in 1980s as photo CD was also a disaster. They spend millions of dollars in developing this project and finally end up distributing to the wrong segment of customers. Fishers idea of concentrating on core business was good, and he paid off debts by selling the unrelated business. But he failed to restructure the company as digital imaging company. His idea of Kodak as hardware Company was a blunder as Kodak was good at services rather than hardware production. All this events led Kodak away from the core profitable business of imaging. It allowed rival industries to get ahead in terms of sales and market share. Fuji is making out profits by developing large number of minilabs across the world.

How Does The Carbon Cycle Work Environmental Sciences Essay

How Does The Carbon Cycle Work Environmental Sciences Essay The carbon cycle can be defined as the continuous biological process through which the carbon is exchanged between the environment and the organisms. It also refers to the thermonuclear reactions which are brought about by nucleus of a carbon -12 atom when it absorbs protons. The sporadic climate changes being experienced in the world today are attributable to the disruption of carbon cycle in one way or the other. Top of the possible causes of this disruption are human activities. Nations are reluctant to accept their share of blame on the whole issue leading to a blame game. Unless the world unites against this common cause, the worst is expected to come. This paper covers the carbon cycle, how it works and how its changing in response to human activities. Carbon is found in the atmosphere in form of the carbon dioxide gas. Other atmosphere gases which contain carbon dioxide include chlorofluorocarbons and methane. The lack or the improper functioning of this cycle can be very dreadful since plants and animals entirely depend on this cycle during their major biological processes. The work of the carbon cycle can be evaluated or assessed in accordance to the different processes that change or move carbon from one form to another. These processes are namely decomposition, photosynthesis, natural weathering of rocks, respiration and the ignition of fossil fuels. During the process of photosynthesis carbon which remains in the atmosphere as the carbon dioxide gas enters into the network of consumers and producers or what is referred to as the ecological food web. After its entry the photosynthetic organisms (algae, plants) absorb the carbon dioxide through the tiny pores found in their leaves. Via photosynthesis the plants can now use the absorbed carbon dioxide and convert it into simple sugars which are essential in the plants growth and reproduction. Plants also pass carbon to the animals especially when the animals feed o the plants since they do not have the ability to make their own food (Ryn and Cowan 87). Respiration process is also found in the carbon cycle but it is unlike photosynthesis because it occurs in the decomposers, plants and animals. The respiration process also produces carbon because the component of oxygen is used in breaking down organic compounds into the carbon dioxide gas and water. Through this process of respiration carbon atoms which start out as the compounds of carbon dioxide are absorbed through the body of human organism and then passed to the atmosphere ready for another recycling. Decomposition happens to be the major process through which carbon is passed to the atmosphere in form of carbon dioxide. This is achieved through the use of decomposers (micro-organisms) which are mainly found in soil and water. These decomposers usually take in dead and waste products which are mainly found in form of rotting remains of animals and plants. At the same time they release carbon dioxide through the process of respiration. As earlier stated, weathering of rocks is the other process through which carbon atoms are released. For example the lime rock (an ocean floor stone formed by marine plankton shells) traps many carbon atoms. These carbon atoms are released sometimes after a million years when the ocean waters recede and the lime rock becomes exposed. Scientifically, its noted that when a lime rock is set out to the natural process of weathering it releases the already trapped atoms becomes a very active part of the carbon cycle once. Human activities/processes also increase the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. One of these activities is the combustion of the fossils fuels. Due to the rapid expansion of industrial revolution many people have been burning the fuels which contain oil and coal to power their engines. The constant production of these fuels has resulted into huge amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Most of the carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of these fuels is however absorbed by plants, oceans and soils thus reducing the increasing effects of global warming (Scienceclarified.com 1). The human activities that influence the carbon cycle Human activities have greatly interfered with the processes involved in the carbon cycle. An example of these human activities is deforestation. Deforestation is the removal of natural occurring forests through cutting and burning of trees in any forested area. People cut trees to use them as fuel, to use the land for pasture, farming and to build settlements. Active deforestation means that there will be no trees which emit oxygen while consuming carbon components (carbon dioxide). This leads to increased carbon dioxide than its consumed thus destroying the carbon cycle. The increase in carbon components in the air results into global warming (excessive heating o the earths and oceans surface). This excessive heating results into dried rivers or decreased volumes of water in the earths surface because the hydrological cycle will be affected by higher rates of precipitation (Miller 217). According to White (1203), the ecologies have greatly been changed by overgrazing, terracing, irrigation and the cutting of trees. For example he says that the Romans used to cut trees to build ships which were used to fight Carthaginians. He also states that the banks on the lower parts of the river Nile are now a human artifact instead of the African jungle which nature could have created instead of man. He also talks of historic ecological change which has been caused by the agricultural invention. Farming prompts deforestation because there must be cutting down of trees to create more space for farming. This ecological change will be contributed by the increase of carbon components in the air since the forest cover is not available. The green house kind of farming is one of the major agricultural contributors to the disruption of the carbon cycle. This is because the green houses emit gases which are not utilized thus bringing about global warming. Some of the gases emitted inclu de the form of carbon referred to as chlorofluorocarbons. It therefore transpires that the amount of the carbon produced is higher than the amounts consumed. Another human activity which has contributed immensely to the disruption of the carbon cycle is the combustion of fuels. This is because of the increased burning of fuels emits huge amounts of carbon components. This will lead to greater volumes of carbon dioxide in the air which will not be consumed thus making the carbon cycle in effective. White (1204) states that by 1925, London had experienced a smog problem which was caused by the continuous burning of soft coal. He also suggests that the current combustion of fossil fuels is high up to the point of threatening to change the worlds atmosphere as a whole. White also suggests that war was another human activity which resulted in to ecological changes including the disruption of the carbon cycle. He asserts that the first cannon were fired in the early 14th century and this affected the ecology because workers were forced to the forests and mountains to scramble for more, sulfur, potash, iron ore and charcoal where by some resulte d into erosion and deforestation. He also warns that a war fought with hydrogen bombs can alter the genetics of life. For example it will affect the processes of the carbon cycle between human beings and plants. According to Mackenzie (1), fishing and whaling activities will affect the global carbon cycle. This is because the continuous removal of the marine biota has resulted into increased atmospheric carbon dioxide. She also suggests that the rise of carbon dioxide or carbon has been caused by progressive fishing which has caused biomass depletion of the worlds ocean. Nowadays, the marine productivity is now relatively lower than it used to be when there was a maintained carbon balance in the ocean-atmosphere. Another form of human activities which have influenced the flow of the carbon cycle is air conditioning and refrigeration. This is because they utilize the carbon available in the air which is in form of chlorofluorocarbon thus inhibiting the continuity of carbon cycle between plants and animals. These human activities are however very important in the world because they reduce the effects of global warming by absorbing the extra carbon available in the air. Another human activity t hat has influenced the carbon cycle is the conversion of wild lands and agricultural lands into settlements. These human settlements are the major contributors to the increased emissions of the global carbon dioxide. They affect the carbon cycle through the direct emissions of the carbon dioxide resulting from combustion of fuels, the alterations of the plant and carbon cycles during the conversion of wild lands to urban and residential land cover and the indirect effects of urban and residential land cover on energy use ecosystem carbon cycling. In human settlements the soil carbon is lost through the soil disturbances caused by the conversion from natural to urban or sub-urban land cover type. The conversion of well settled and managed land cover into human settlements results into higher rates of carbon sequestration and storage due to large inputs of fertilizer, water and organic matter (Pataki et al 1). Works cited Carbon cycle Science clarified. Retrieved on 27th January 2010 from http://www.scienceclarified.com/Ca-Ch/Carbon-Cycle.html Mackenzie, Debbie. THE EFFECTS OF FISHING AND WHALING ACTIVITIES ON THE GLOBAL CARBON CYCLE, 2001. Retrieved on 27th January 2010 from http://www.fisherycrisis.com/strangelove.html Miller Tyler. Living in the Environment: Principles, Connection. Stamford: Cengage Learning, 2008 Pataki, Diane. Human settlements and the North American carbon cycle, 2006. Retrieved on 27th January 2010 from http://www.climate.noaa.gov/ccsp/22_SOCCR_Chapter14.pdf Ryn, Sim, and Cowan, Stuart. Ecological design. Washington: Island press, 1996 White, Lynn. The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis, Vol 155 (number 3767), march 10 1967, pp 1203-1207. Cycle Human Settlements and the North

The History Of Lsd And Its Effects On The American Counterculture Essay

After World War II ended, the age of baby-booming and urban sprawling began. During this time, many American soldiers came home from the war; married, and had five or six children. This created the largest generation ever. Could this new generation change the social world of America? In 1964, most of the baby-boomer's children were in their late teens. This was the beginning of a major social change in the United States. With the birth of rock-n-roll not far in the past, and a growing liberalism of the normally conservative American Society, it is no wonder that a powerful hallucinogenic drug called LSD gained so much popularity. LSD-25 was first created in 1938 by Albert Hoffmann in the Sandoz chemical-pharmaceutical laboratories in Basle, Switzerland. It was synthesized from the twenty-fifth compound of Iysergic acid. When first tested on animals, scientists had no idea that the powerful chemical had such psychedelic properties until Albert Hoffmann himself, involuntarily tested the new chemical. This "involuntary" testing of the LSD is the first time it was ever tested on a human subject; it was a result of Hoffmann accidentally intoxicating himself with LSD-25 during a routine purification process with the chemical.(3) After the experience, Hoffmann wrote: "Last Friday, April 16, 1943, I was forced to stop my work in the laboratory in the middle of the afternoon and to go home, as I was seized by a peculiar restlessness associated with a sensation of mild dizziness. On arriving home, I lay down and sank into a kind of drunkenness, which was not unpleasant and which was characterized by extreme activity of the imagination. As I lay in a dazed condition with my eyes closed, (I experienced daylight as disa... ...lso considered to be very inspirational to the hippies. Alan Ginsberg, a popular beat poet was a favorite of many hippies. Rock and folk music were also big contributors to this new movement. (2) In my opinion, the one thing that gave the most inspiration to the counterculture movement, beyond everything else, is the nationwide recreational use of LSD. LSD opened up the minds of the American youth, prompting them to explore life beyond the norms of society. It made people think critically about the information that is fed to us by the establishment. LSD was the tool to see through all the propaganda of the American capitalist's, and see the truths. The truth is what sparked many young people of this time period to stand up for their beliefs. Drugs like LSD seemed to be a good way to cure ones self from the brainwashing of American media and corporate bureaucracies. The History Of Lsd And Its Effects On The American Counterculture Essay After World War II ended, the age of baby-booming and urban sprawling began. During this time, many American soldiers came home from the war; married, and had five or six children. This created the largest generation ever. Could this new generation change the social world of America? In 1964, most of the baby-boomer's children were in their late teens. This was the beginning of a major social change in the United States. With the birth of rock-n-roll not far in the past, and a growing liberalism of the normally conservative American Society, it is no wonder that a powerful hallucinogenic drug called LSD gained so much popularity. LSD-25 was first created in 1938 by Albert Hoffmann in the Sandoz chemical-pharmaceutical laboratories in Basle, Switzerland. It was synthesized from the twenty-fifth compound of Iysergic acid. When first tested on animals, scientists had no idea that the powerful chemical had such psychedelic properties until Albert Hoffmann himself, involuntarily tested the new chemical. This "involuntary" testing of the LSD is the first time it was ever tested on a human subject; it was a result of Hoffmann accidentally intoxicating himself with LSD-25 during a routine purification process with the chemical.(3) After the experience, Hoffmann wrote: "Last Friday, April 16, 1943, I was forced to stop my work in the laboratory in the middle of the afternoon and to go home, as I was seized by a peculiar restlessness associated with a sensation of mild dizziness. On arriving home, I lay down and sank into a kind of drunkenness, which was not unpleasant and which was characterized by extreme activity of the imagination. As I lay in a dazed condition with my eyes closed, (I experienced daylight as disa... ...lso considered to be very inspirational to the hippies. Alan Ginsberg, a popular beat poet was a favorite of many hippies. Rock and folk music were also big contributors to this new movement. (2) In my opinion, the one thing that gave the most inspiration to the counterculture movement, beyond everything else, is the nationwide recreational use of LSD. LSD opened up the minds of the American youth, prompting them to explore life beyond the norms of society. It made people think critically about the information that is fed to us by the establishment. LSD was the tool to see through all the propaganda of the American capitalist's, and see the truths. The truth is what sparked many young people of this time period to stand up for their beliefs. Drugs like LSD seemed to be a good way to cure ones self from the brainwashing of American media and corporate bureaucracies.

Sartys Transformation in William Faulkners Barn Burning Essay

Sarty's Transformation in William Faulkner's Barn Burning   Ã‚   In William Faulkner's story, "Barn Burning", we find a young man who struggles with the relationship he has with his father and his own conscience.   We see Sarty, the young man, develop into an adult while dealing with the many crude actions and ways of Abner, his father.   We see Sarty as a puzzled youth that faces the questions of faithfulness to his father or faithfulness to himself and the society he lives in.   His struggle dealing with the reactions that are caused by his father's action result in him thinking more for himself as the story progresses.   Ã‚  Ã‚   The first instance in which we can see a transition from childhood to adulthood in Sarty's life is in the way he compliments his father.   Sarty admires his father very much and wishes that things could change for the better throughout the story.   At the beginning of the story he speaks of how his fathers "wolf-like independence" causes his family to depend on almost no one (Faulkner 155).   He believes that they live on their own because of his fathers drive for survival.   When Sarty mentions the way his father commands his sisters to clean a rug with force "though never raising his voice" it shows how he sees his father as strict, but not overly demanding (Faulkner 159).   He seems to begin to feel dissent towards his father for the way he exercises his authority in the household.   As we near the end of the story, Sarty's compliments become sparse and have a different tone surrounding them. After running from the burning barn, he spoke of his dad in an a lmost heroic sense.   He wanted everyone to remember his dad as a brave man, "he was in the war" and should be known for it, not burning barns (Faulkner 154)... ...r from a person of innocence into a person with a conscience in Sarty. Faulkner gradually develops Sarty into a man of his own deeds throughout the story.   Sarty has to finally realize that blood is not always thicker than water.   Faulkner's story symbolizes the way in which society works today.   If one individual is doing wrong, you must overlook the relationship you have with him and look at the wrong deeds he is doing.   If you happen to face your fears and set strait the wrong, in the end, the good will always prevail. Works Cited Faulkner, William. "Barn Burning". Literature, Compact Edition. Edgar V. Roberts, Henry E. Jacobs. New Jersy: Prentice-Hall, 1990. 154-167. Ford, Marilyn Claire. "Narrative Legerdenain: Evoking Sarty's Future in 'Barn Burning.'" Mississippi Quarterly, Summer 98, Issue 3: 51. Academic Search Elite. GALILEO. 25 Sept. 2000.

Review Article †Rheumatoid Arthritis & Il-6 Essay

Introduction Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an inflammatory autoimmune condition principally causing synovial joint inflammation and cartilage erosion. The pathogenesis encompasses intricate cellular and humoural manifestations, and vascular reactions that result in the infiltration of the synovium by white blood cells, of which release inflammatory mediators, inclusive of Interleukin-6 (IL-6). IL-6 serum levels of RA patients as shown by Capell et al. (1993) displayed a median of 55 IU/ml, as compared to that of healthy controls of 10 IU/ml. With a wide-ranging pleiotropy endorsed by both a membrane-bound (IL-6R) and soluble (sIL-6R) receptor, and by the relative omnipresence of the trans-membrane protein gp130, IL-6 endorses a pro-inflammatory effect via its influence on numerous cell types and signalling-pathways. As a result, heightened levels of IL-6 aids in the promotion of osteitis, sequential joint damage, pain/discomfort and impaired function in RA patients. Pleiotropy of IL-6 Interleukin 6 exerts effects on numerous pathways contributing to the pathophysiology of RA. IL-6 as it is called today has been known by several names that exemplify its pleiotropy for example, hepatocyte-stimulating factor known to cause the induction of C-reactive protein (CRP); due to IL-6 association with synovial fibril aggregation has been known as Amyloid protein; a thrombopoietin; both B-cell differentiation and stimulating factor 2; plasmacytoma growth factor; and cytotoxic T-cell differentiation factor. It also causes the differentiation of Th17 cells; is a causative factor in adhesion molecule expression on the surface of endothelial cells, and is involved in the differentiation to mature from precursor osteoclasts cells (REF!!). IL-6 Recptor binding IL-6 implements its influence via a protein complex primarily comprised of a membrane bound IL-6R and a glycoprotein comprised of two intra-cytoplasmic transducer sub-units, gp130. When IL-6 binds to membrane bound IL-6R (mIL-6R) it causes homo-dimerisation of the gp130 sub-units, of which triggers intra-cytoplasmic signal transduction. Whilst expression of gp130 is relatively omnipresent upon the surface of the body’s cells (Akil, et al., 2008), IL-6R is most prominently located on hepatocytes, macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils and select lymphocytes. However, (sIL-6R) of which is systemic also binds IL-6, and just as mIL-6R, can also engage with gp130 for sIL-6-gp130 trans-signalling (REF!). Synoviocytes, for example do not express mIL-6R but do express gp130. Raised levels of IL-6 in the synovium is a characteristic biomarker of RA (Attar, et al., 2010), and Kim, et al. (1996) states enhanced IL-6/sIL-6R in synovial fluid increased the risk of joint destruction, as IL-6 stimulates endothelial cells to express adhesion cytokines and other molecules of which attract inflammatory cells to synovial membrane (Romano, et al., 1997) thus could contribute to exemplifying the significance of sIL-6R in RA pathophysiology. sIL-6R is formed by either an incomplete proteolytic enzymic dissection of mIL-6R or alternative splicing of mRNA (REF!!). With the aforementioned ubiquitous nature of gp130, mIL-6R and systemic sIL-6R, increasing evidence REFERENCES SEE NOTES!! shows that a non-membrane bound, systemic, soluble gp130 (sgp130) found in higher circulatory concentrations than that of sIL-6, also binds IL-6/sIL-6R, thus functioning as a redundency factor inhibiting the cytoplasmic signal-transducing potential of mgp130 REFERENCES SEE NOTES!!, (IL-6/IL-6 receptor system and its role†¦) thus serving as a natural inhibitor of IL-6 signalling (IL-6/IL-6 receptor system and its role†¦). Intracellular signalling gp130 dimerisation brings Janus Kinases (JAKS), a receptor-associated protein complex, into close proximity causing a trans-activation of the two molecule types. Auto-phosphorylation of JAKS occurs, of which causes intracellular signal transduction by recruiting signal-transducers and activators of transcriptions (STAT) that form either hetro or homo dimers and migrate to cell nucleus effecting target gene transcription of various physiological processes (REF). IL-6 can be detrimental to human physiology (REF!), thus expression of proteins known as the suppressors of cytokine signalling (SOCS) function as a negative-feedback system, and are activated by STAT’s. The regulation of the JAK-STAT signalling pathway by SOCS is more specifically down-regulated by SOCS 3 (REF!). SOCS 3 binds JAK’s causing negative-regulation thus functioning as an auto-regulatory mechanism, by inhibiting JAK activity. IL-6 and the Adaptive Immune System The trans-signalling of IL-6 is known to cause the induction of pre-B-cell-colony-stimulating factor (PBEF) in fibroblast cells of the synovium (Bryant, et al., 2006), and since PBEF upon its discovery was considered a B-cell differentiation cytokine(McNiece et al., 1994), it could be considered plausible that IL-6-induced PBEF and the IL-6 maturation of B-cells, collectively contribute to RA. It has been found the effect of IL-6 on plasmablasts indirectly induces the production of B-cell antibodies by assisting elements of CD4+ T-cells (of which act upon activated B-cells) due to elevated IL-21 production (Bond, et al., 2009), thus IL-6 may potentially be a co-adjuvant to humoural immunity enhancement (Bond, et al., 2009). Enhanced levels of the RA associated Rheumatoid Factor are located in the IgA, IgG and IgM isotypes (Ahmed, et al., 2010), and citruline antibodies located in serum and joints, can be linked to the plasmablast-induced antibody production of IL-6 (Ahmed, et al., 20 10). IL-6 enhances T-cell proliferation where they have been mitogen stimulated (Mihara, et al., 2002). IL-6 also impacts T-cell development (Mihara, et al., 2002). Along with transforming growth factor (TGF)- ÃŽ ², IL-6 contributes to Th 17 differentiation, an effector T cell with pro-inflammatory elements, and is further compounded by Th 17 production of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-17 (Bettelli, et al., 2007). Interestingly, without IL-6, TGF- ÃŽ ² induces Treg production, of which are Th 17 cell suppressors (Hirota, et al., 2008). CD4+ Th cells have been considered Th 1 and Th 2 based upon their cytokine-producing characteristics (Diehl and Rincon, 2002). Th 1 and Th 2 produce IFN-á µ § and IL-13 respectively, of which are both pro-inflammatory molecules, however whereas IL-6 bolsters IL-4 induced differentiation of Th 2, it causes the inhibition of IL-12 induced differentiation of Th 1 (Diehl and Rincon, 2002). Acosta-Rodriguez, et al. (2007) found that in vitro levels of IL-1ÃŽ ² – induced Th 17 polarisation of naà ¯ve human CD4+ T-cells were heightened by IL-6 involvement. More research however, is required to make clear the full extent of IL-6 role in human Th 17 cell development, in vivo. During inflammation, neutrophils of which are essential inflammatory mediators, systemically increase substantially, resulting in relative neutrophilia. Endothelial cells, macrophages and monocytes all emit IL-6. Neutrophils are directly affected by IL-6 due to the expression of IL-6R. Filer, et al. (2005) found that co-cultured endothelial cells and fibroblasts extracted from synovial fluid of RA patients caused an increase in IL-6 and neutrophil recruitment. Adhesion molecules, of which it has been shown in the work of Woodfin et al. (2010) to be required in the transmigration of neutrophils, are augmented by IL-6 such as vascular cell adhesion molecule – 1 (VCAM) and intracellular adhesion molecule – 1 (ICAM) of which produce chemokine production. Thus neutrophils being the most numerous and systemic of leucocytes have a strong initial synovial presence and is bolstered by the amplification of the inflammatory cascade, contributing to the inflammatory escalation during acute-phase response; and findings from animal and human studies revealed that the blockade of IL-6 caused a reduction in neutrophil levels at inflamed sites (Hashizume, et al., 2008), as well as a reduction in systemic neutrophil counts in RA patients (Deguchi, et al., 2003 and Broll, et al., 2006),thus indicating a prominent role for IL-6 in neutrophilia. IL-6: Acute to Chronic Farnarier, et al. (2003) suggests the transition from acute to chronic inflammation as emphasised by a shift of biomarker from neutrophil to monocyte, is influenced by IL-6. It was found that if stimulated for a number of hours by inflammatory cytokines, neutrophils switched from the production of IL-8 and transitioned to monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) (Yamashiro, et al., 1999). sIL-6R is released from neutrophils of which in turn causes the chemokine release of endothelial cells, thus Romano, et al. (1997) suggests the IL-6 – sIL6R complex contributes to the release of MCP-1 from endothelial cells. As earlier discussed, neutrophil-count was found to be directly associated with the blockade of IL-6R?!; and endothelial cells expressing the gp130 but not the IL-6R, thus reliant upon the IL-6 – sIL6RÃŽ ± complex for induction of MCP-1 release, i.e. the release of monocyte, not neutrophil specific chemo-attractants (Gres, et al., 2001), it would appear IL-6 tran-signalling plays an integral role in the transition from acute to chronic inflammation via neutrophil and endothelial cells. *CHART SHOWING CELLS THAT RELEASE IL-6!!* IL-6 induces a disintigrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs (ADAMTS) and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) proteinases of which are pivotal in the degradation of extracellular matrix. IL-6 more specifically, has been shown to induce ADAMTS-4 and MMP’s 1, 2 and 13 production in cells lining the synovium and chondrocytes (Hashizume and Mihara, 2009; Hashizume, et al., 2010; 2012). However, it has been suggested the IL-6 – sIL-6R complex has bearing on the extracellular matrix turnover, as it causes generation of tissue inhibitors of MMP’s (TIMP’s) in synovium fibroblasts and chondrocytes (Dayer, et al., 1998 and Hashizume, et al., 2012). The drug tocilizumab (TCZ), an IL-6 inhibitor reduces MMP-3 blood serum levels of RA patients (Garnero, et al., 2010), and has been show to restore biomarkers associated with cartilage turnover (Dayer, et al., 1998). Thus, in RA patients the reduction of IL-6 activity appears to be a mediatory factor in sustainment of healthy joint cartilage. Angiogenesis is a key process in the local inflammatory process. Neovascularisation of the synovium and other angiogenic processes such as hyperplasia of synovial cells and permeation by inflammatory cells are characteristic processes in pannus development and RA pathology (Ballara et al., 2001). In addition to notable constituents of the inflammatory process such as monocytes and T cells, both of which as stated previously have affiliations with IL-6 expression (CITATION OF A FEW), levels of a key angiogenic specific growth factor Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) has also been associated with systemic levels of IL-6, as demonstrated in the work of Hasizume, et al., 2009 and Hagihara, et al., 2003 revealing IL-6 induces VEGF production from synovial cells. VEGF induces proteins that contribute to the breakdown of endothelial basement membrane, including MMP’s, of which increases the permeability of blood vessels, thus allowing enhanced infiltration of inflammatory constituents (Delisle, et al., 2010). VEGF levels accordingly, have been shown to coincide with the articular severity of RA (Hagihana, et al., 2003), and has shown a reduction in response to TCZ (Hagihana, et al., 2003), of which correlates with findings of a semi-quantitative assessment by Akoi, et al. (2011) using ultrasonography that found TCZ responsible for a marked reduction in RA neovascularisation. Bone Remodelling Bone remodelling is a highly regulated process in which mature bone tissue is removed by osteoclasts and formation by osteoblasts. The pathogenesis of RA favours bone loss (resorption) via the excessive production of osteoclasts. Anecdotal evidence by Kazuto et al. (1996) revealed synovial fluid highly +ve for IL-6 –sIL6R complex from RA patients, stimulated increased formation of osteoclasts in mouse co-culture of osteoblast and bone marrow cells. This study coincides with research by Balena, et al. (1994) of which indicated that mice deficient in IL-6 displayed no significant changes in gross or trabecular bone structure. In human studies, biopsies of RA patients revealed that peri-articular bone loss was found to correlate with local excessive presence of IL-6 (Sugiyama, 2001), and work by Garnero et al. (2009) showed the administration of TCZ to RA patients in a multi-centre double-blind placebo-controlled study yielded an increase in bone-formation markers, with a decrease in bone-resorption markers. Collectively, research suggests IL-6 has a negative effect on bone mass. Acute-phase response Acute-phase response is an innate immune reaction in which IL-6 is notably involved via the stimulation of hepatocytes, and is a key inducer of the acute-phase protein CRP. CRP is considered a dependable biomarker of inflammation and RA activity as serum half-life remains constant due to its inflammatory-induced, hepatic-stimulated production being the exclusive systemic determinant and due to its noted increase in RA serum levels (Hirshfield and Pepys, 2003). Anaemia Approximately 1-in-4 RA patients will suffer symptoms of anaemia within the first year (Figenschau, Nikolaisen and Nossent, 2008). The hormone hepcidin, produced in the liver and integral in stemming the metabolism of iron, has been shown in vitro to increase in presence due to IL-6 stimulation of hepatoma cells (Ganz, 2003). This study correlates with Gabayan et al. (2004) in which IL-6 induced patients experienced a 7.5 fold increase in hepcidin production. Anaemia in RA patients, as a result of a hepcidin-IL-6 axis, has limited but supported credence. Osteoporosis has also shown a correlation with IL-6. As mentioned earlier, healthy bone metabolism requires adequate regulation of osteoclasts and osteoblasts, in which excessive IL-6 expression and the Th17 derived IL-17 (Gillespie, et al., 1999) both contribute to excessive osteoclast formation (Campbell et al., 2005). This has also been found to be the case in transgenic mice (De et al., 2006; and Choy and Dayer, 2009) in which bone formation was reduced, and negative ossification was reported. As shown, there are comparable cross-over aspects of IL-6 pathology between RA and osteoporosis. Treatment As highlighted throughout this review, IL-6 plays a pleiotropic pathophysiological role in RA, thus would make an ideal therapeutic target. The most promising and note-worthy of treatments at present, TCZ interrupts IL-6 induced trans-signalling. Numerous studies have shown promising results including a phase III clinical trial in 2005 using the ACR (American College of Rheumatology)* RA activity measure, which had improvement measures of 89, 70 and 47% at ACR’s of 20, 50 and 70 respectively at 52 weeks, in patients treated with TCZ. This multicentre, double-blind placebo-controlled trial by Hashimoto et al. (2004) showed bone resorption and joint destruction could potentially be completely prevented (Kishimoto, 2010), as exemplified when a culture of patient synovial and peripheral mononuclear cells, extracted from the same patients showed that osteoclast generation was completely prevented (Hashimoto et al., 2004; Kishimoto, 2010). At 6 weeks within this study, it was also found that IgG, CRP and serum amyloid A levels all normalised. It has also been suggested that TCZ aids in Th17 differentiation, hence IL-17 production, thus aids in the improvement of RA symptoms (Kimura and Kishimoto, 2010). Other notable studies such as the SAMURAI (Study of Active controlled Monotherapy Used for RA, an IL-6 Inhibitor) and LITHE (TociLIzumab safety and THE prevention of structural joint damage trial) served to enhance conscensus. This humanised, monoclonal antibody has now been approved in many countries^^. 286 With a wide-ranging pleitropy, IL-6 has the most profuse SF and systemic cytokine presence in RA pathophysiology, and coincides with cartilage erosion and disease activity. It has a role in elements of B-cell differentiation and increasing evidence suggests a definite yet ambiguous role in Th17 differentiation. IL-6 has several key positions in immune and inflammatory processes (recruitment, permeation and adhesion of inflammatory elements), and bone and joint degradation, of which over-expression causes adversity, such as release of hepcidin and CRP from the liver contributing to anaemia and inflammation, osteoporosis and pannus development. It plays a key role in the cross-over from acute-to-chronic disease. TCZ has shown much promise in RA therapy by inhibiting IL-6 expression. *ACR 20, 50 and 70 = improvements of 20%, 50% and 70% in disease activity, respectively. ^Disease Modifying Anti Rheumatic Drugs. ^^Japan , April 2008, Europe, January 2009 and USA, January 2010. PUT IN ABSTRACT: The IL-6R, sIL-6R and gp130 system is known as IL-6 trans-signalling References: Capell, H. A., Crilly, A., Madhok, R., Watson, J., 1993. Serum interleukin 6 levels in rheumatoid arthritis: correlations with clinical and laboratory indices of disease activity. 52 (3): 232 — Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. [ONLINE] Available at:http://ard.bmj.com/content/52/3/232.full.pdf+htm. [Accessed 23 December 2012]. Angelo, L. S., Hong, D. S., Kurzrock, R., 2007. Interleukin†6 and its receptor in cancer. Cancer – Wiley Online Library. [ONLINE] Available at:http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cncr.22999/pdf. [Accessed 01 January 2013]. Bussolino, F., Ciliberto, G.,Faggioni, R., Fruscella, P., Hinsbergh, V. V., Luini, W., Mantovani, A., Polentarutti, N., Poli, V., Romano, M., Sironi, M, Toniatti, C., 1997. Role of IL-6 and Its Soluble Receptor in Induction of Chemokines and Leukocyte Recruitment. Immunity [ONLINE] 6 (3), pp. 315-325. Available at:http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1074761300803349. [Accessed 01 January 2013]. Akil, M ., Binks, M. H., Dickson, M. C., Hughes, F.J. , Montgomery, D.S., Rioja, I., C.H. Sharp, L.C. Warnock, A.G. Wilson, (2008). Potential novel biomarkers of disease activity in rheumatoid arthritis patients: CXCL13, CCL23, transforming growth factor alpha, tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 9, and macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Arthritis Rheumatology, 58, pp. 2257–2267. Attar, M., Cuzzocrea, S., Mirshafiey, A., Di Paola, R., Saadat, F., 2010. Therapeutic Efficacy of Artesunate in Experimental Model of Rheumatoid Arthritis. Oxford Journals, PP-037-09. Available at: http://intimmabs.oxfordjournals.org/content/22/Suppl_1_Pt_2/ii105.short. [Accessed 01 January 2013]. Kashiwazaki, S., Kishimoto, T Kim KJ, Kotake S, Nakamura, I., Sato K, Suda, T.,takahashi, N., Udagawa, N., Yamaguchi, A., 1996. Interleukin-6 and soluble interleukin-6 receptors in the synovial fluids from rheumatoid arthritis patients are responsible for osteoclast-like cell formation. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research. 11: 88–95. Ahmaed, M. M., Obaid, A. K. A., Mohammed, S. H., 2010. Evaluation of the rheumatoid factors of the IgG, IgM and IgA isotypes as prognostic parameters for rheumatoid arthritis among Iraqi patients. Indian Journal of Pathology and Microbiology, [online] Available at: http://www.n cbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20699498. [Accessed 01 January 2013]. Bond, J. P., Briso, E. M., Charland, C., Ciliberto, G., Dienz, O., Eaton, S. M., Haynes, L., Leonard, W. J., Moquin, D., Neveu, W., Rincon, M., 2009. The induction of antibody production by IL-6 is indirectly mediated by IL-21 produced by CD4+ T cells, Journal of Experimental Medicine, [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2626667/. [Accessed 01 January 2013]. Hashizume, M., Higuchi, Y., Mihara, M., Uchiyama, Y., 2011. IL-6 plays an essential role in neutrophilia under inflammation, Cytokine, [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1043466611000081. [Accessed 01 January 2013]. Bryant-Greenwood, G., Fielding, C. A., Jones, S. A., Nowell, M. A., Ognjanovic, S., Richards, P. J., Topley, N., Williams, A. S., 2006. Regulation of pre-B cell colony-enhancing factor by STAT-3-dependent interleukin-6 trans-signaling: implications in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthriti s, Arthritis & Rheumatism, [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16802343. [Accessed 10 January 2013]. (McNiece et al., 1994) http://europepmc.org/articles/PMC358498/pdf/molcellb00002-0573.pdf (Mihira et al., 2002) http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016524780200202X (Bettelli et al., 2009) http://europepmc.org/articles/PMC2839934/ (Diehl and Rincon, 2002) http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0161589002002109 (Acosta-Rodriguez, E. V., Lanzavecchia, A., Napolitani, G., Sallusto, F., 2007. Interleukins 1b and 6 but not transforming growth factor-b are essential for the differentiation of interleukin 17–producing human T helper cells, Nature Immunology, [online] Available at: http://kp5us7vu4a.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info:ofi/enc:UTF-8&rfr_id=info:sid/ProQ%3A&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+immunology&rft.atitle=Interleukins+1beta+and+6+but+not+transforming+growth+factor-beta+are+essential+for+the+differentiation+of+interleukin+17-producing+human+T+helper+cells.&rft.au=Acosta-Rodriguez%2C+Eva+V+EV%3BNapolitani%2C+Giorgio+G%3BLanzavecchia%2C+Antonio+A%3BSallusto%2C+Federica+F&rft.aulast=Acosta-Rodriguez&rft.aufirst=Eva+V&rft.date=2007-09-01&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=9&rft.spage=942&rft.isbn=&rft.btitle=&rft.title=Nature+immunology&rft.issn=15292908. [Accessed 02 January 2013]. Buer, J., Dumoutier, L., Hirota, K., Renauld, J. C., Stockinger, B., Veldhoen, M., Westendorf, A. M., 2008. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor links TH17-cell-mediated autoimmunity to environmental toxins, Nature, [online] Available at: http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/18362914. [Accessed 01 January 2013]. (flier, et al., 2005) http://europepmc.org/articles/PMC3119436/ Woodfin, A., Nourshargh, S., Voisin, M., 2010. Recent developments and complexities in neutrophil transmigration, Current Opinion in Hematology, [online] Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2882030/. [Accessed 01 january 2013]. Hashizume, M., Mihara, M., Moriya, Y., Yorozu, K., Uchiyama, Y., 2008. Tocilizumab, a humanized anti-interleukin-6 receptor antibody, ameliorates joint swelling in established monkey collagen-induced arthritis, Biological and Pharmaceutical bulletin, [online] Available at: http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/18520048. [Accessed 02 January 2013]. Deguchi H, Imai N, Kakehi T, Kishimoto T, Kuritani T, Maeda K, Nishimoto N, Sato B, Suemura M, Takagi N, Yoshizaki K, 2010. Toxicity, pharmacokinetics, and dose-finding study of repetitive treatment with the humanized anti-interleukin 6 receptor antibody MRA in rheumatoid arthritis. Phase I/II clinical study, Journal of Rheumatology, [online] Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eji.201040391/full. [Accessed 01 January 2013]. Balint, G., Broll, J., Emery, P. Kishimoto, T., Pavelka, K., Peterson, J., Maini, R. N., Raemen, F., Smolen, Szechinski, J., K., Taylor, J., Thompson, D., 2006. Double†blind randomized controlled clinical trial of the interleukin†6 receptor antagonist, tocilizumab, in European patients with rheumatoid arthritis who had an incomplete response to methotrexate, Arthritis & Rheumatism – Wiley Online Library, [ONLINE] Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/art.22033/pdf. [Accessed 01 January 2013]. Farnarier, C., Kaplanski, G., Mantovani, A., Marin, V., Montero-Julien, F., 2003. IL-6: a regulator of the transition from neutrophil to monocyte recruitment during inflammation, Trends in immunology, [online] Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1471490602000133. [Accessed 01 January 2013]. Hashizume and Mirhara, 2009. Desirable effect of combination therapy with high molecular weight hyaluronate and NSAIDs on MMP production, Osteoarthritis and Cartilage, 17(11) Pp 1513-1518. [online] Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1063458409001320. [Accessed 01 January 2010]. (Hashizume, M., Mihara, M., Shiina, M., Suzuki, M., Yoshida, H., 2010. IL-6 and IL-1 synergistically enhanced the production of MMPs from synovial cells by up-regulating IL-6 production and IL-1 receptor I expression, Cytokine, [online] Available at: http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/20403707. [Accessed 01 January 2013]. (Hashizume, M., Mihara, M., Shiina, M., Suzuki, M., Yoshida, H., 2012. IL-6/IL-6 receptor system and its role in physiological and pathological conditions, Clinical Science, [online] Available at: http://submit.clinsci.org/cs/122/0143/1220143.pdf. [Accessed 01 January 2013]. Ballara, S., Feldmann, M., Maini, R. N., Marme, D., Paleolog, E. M., Reusch, P., Taylor, P. C., et al., 2001. Raised serum vascular endothelial growth factor levels are associated with destructive change in inflammatory arthritis, Arthritis & Rheumatology, [online] Available at: http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/11592367. [Accessed 01 January 2013]. (Hashizume et al., 2009) http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/20039425 (Hagihara et al., 2003) http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/12794819 (Delisle, C., Faubert, D., Gratton, J., Oubaha, M., Rautureau, Y., Thibeault, S., Wilkes, B. C., 2010. S-Nitrosylation of ÃŽ ²-Catenin by eNOS-Derived NO Promotes VEGF-Induced Endothelial Cell Permeability, Molecular cell. [online] Available at : http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1097276510005356, [Accessed 01 January 2013]. (Akoi et al., 2011) http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/21076827 (Koishihara et al., 1993) http://www.pnas.org/content/90/24/11924.full.pdf (Fuller et al., 2001) http://www.fasebj.org/content/15/1/43.full (Kazuto et al., 1996) http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jbmr.5650110113/abstract Balena et al. (1994) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC394928/pdf/emboj00053-0197.pdf (Garnero et al 2009) http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/art.25053/full Hirschfield, G.M. and Pepys, M.B., 2003. C-reactive protein: a critical update. Journal of Clinical Investigations. 111, pp. 1805-1812. [online] Available at: http://www.jci.org/articles/view/18921. [Accessed 01 January 2013]. Figenschau Y, Nikolaisen C, Nossent JC., 2008. Anemia in early rheumatoid arthritis is associated with interleukin 6-mediated bone marrow suppression, but has no effect on disease course or mortality. Journal of Rheumatology. 2008;35: 380–6. Ganz, 2003. Hepcidin, a key regulator of iron metabolism and mediator of anemia of inflammation. Blood, ;102:783–8. [online] Available at: http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/content/102/3/783.long [Accessed 02 January 2013]. Gillespie, M. T., Inoue, K., Itoh, K., Ishiyama, S., Kotake, S., Martin, T., J., Matsuzaki, K., Saito, S., Suda, T., Takahashi, N., Udagawa, N., 1999. IL-17 in synovial fluids from patients with rheumatoid arthritis is a potent stimulator of osteoclastogenesis. Journal of Clinical Investigations, 103: 1345–1352. [online] Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC408356/ [Accessed 02 January 2013]. Campbell, I. K., Nieuwenhuize, A. V., Quinn, J. M. W., Sims, N. A., Wicks, I. P., Wong, P. K. K., 2006. Interleukin-6 modulates production of T lymphocyte–derived cytokines in antigen-induced arthritis and drives inflammation-induced osteoclastogenesis. Arthritis & Rheumatism, 54 (1): 158-168. [online] Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/art.21537/pdf [Accessed 02 January 2013].

A feminist or misogynistic Essay

In the play Medea, Euripides recognises the lack of gender equality of his time and comments on the patrichial nature of ancient Greek society. A feminist theme resonates in the play and has been developed through the characterisation of Medea and Jason. Medea, the female protagonist, is portrayed as powerful figure. Medea is spurned and aggrieved by a man but instead of accepting the situation submissively as she would have been expected to do, she asserts her own power. Furthermore, when King Creon decides to banish her, she doesn’t hesitate to argue persuasively on her own behalf despite his position of power. She naturally assumes that she has the right to speak as a man might do. Medea recognizes the oppression of women in her society when she declares â€Å"we women are the sorriest lot: first we must at great expenditure of money but a husband and even take on a master of our body†. However, Medea herself denounces women by admitting that they were born ‘useless for honest purposes’ suggesting that woman’s skills lie solely in the ability to exert their will by deceit and manipulation. Her deceptive nature is evident in the nature of the murder of Glauce by giving gifts laced with poison. Medea argues that although women have a deserved reputation for treachery, they only do so as the patriarchal society to which they belong deprives them of any other avenues of power. Yet Medea’s response to masculine exploitation surpasses any reasonable measures by her horrific murder of her children. The audience is positioned to be shocked and unsympathetic towards her actions. Medea’s actions are portrayed as hers alone not indicative of the natural behavior of women and Euripides acknowledges that the social injustice experienced by Medea cannot absolve her personal accountability for her actions. In the play through his characterisation of Jason, Euripides mocks the men’s supposed entitlement to authority and supremacy over women. Jason, the key male figure, from the onset of the play reveals himself to the audience to be a weak character, at odds with his reputation as a hero. His abandonment of his obedient wife, Medea, his greed-driven re-marriage and his inability to admit his own culpability in the drama that ensued, portrays him to the audience as vapid, vacuous man whose actions are fuelled almost entirely by self-interest. His constant emasculation of Jason by his depiction as a weak and flawed character makes him appear unsympathetic to the audience. Medea is a strong-willed and powerful individual whose personality traits would be stereotypically attributed to a male character whilst Jason’s self-obsessed and treacherous ways would more often be linked to a female character. Through the depiction of Medea and Jason, Euripides makes the conjecture their characters are both highly flawed and so they should be condemned for their deeds rather than for the gender.

Orwell: Shooting An Elephant †analysis paper Essay

Prompt 3 â€Å"Read carefully paragrphs 11-13 of Orwells Shooting An Elephant. THen write a well-organized essay explaining how the author uses stylistic devices and rhetoical strategies to convey his attitude toward the shooting of the elephant. Elephants were once, and are currently, considered prized possessions in some parts of the world. The taming of these majestic creatures dates all the way back to BC and, since then, elephants have continued to hold high value especially ceremonially, labor-wise, and culturally. But, just like any living organism, sometimes elephants do the wrong thing, in the wrong place, at the wrong time. That’s what unfortunately happened to the elephant in Orwell’s piece, Shooting an Elephant. Orwell’s piece includes stylistic elements such as figurative languag and juxtaposition to express the narrators indifferent, but also guilty attitude towards bringing death upon the elephant. Orwell weaves symbolic figurative language, such as metaphors and similes, into his piece Shooting the Elephant to emphasize the narrators emotions towards his pulling of the trigger on the elephant. See more: analytical writing The narrators indifference caused his mind to believe â€Å"a mad elephant has to be killed like a mad dog,if it’s owner fails to control it;† even though the elephant never posed a threat as a mad dog would. If the narrator hadn’t felt guilty, he wouldn’t have downsized the situation by comparing the elephant to a mad dog to justify his actions, but if he hadn’t had an indifferent attitude then perhaps the elephant would still be standing. Pulling the trigger on the gun aimed for the elephant triggered the narrators guilty conscience, especially when the elephant helplessly collapses â€Å"with a crash that seemed to shake the ground even where I lay.† The metaphorical comparison of the elephant falling to an earthquake illustrates how the narrator realized how monumental and uncalled for the death of the elephant was, which led the guilt to begin tugging on his heart. Juxtaposition plays a big part in expressing the attitude of the narrator. The unfortunate coolie death with his â€Å"arms crucified, head sharply twisted to one side† intensely juxtaposes the majestic and graceful elephant death with â€Å"his trunk reaching skywards like a tree† and his â€Å"thick blood welling out of him like red velvet.† Unlike the full essay that the elephant gets, the poor coolie gets a mere three or four sentences about his death. This juxtaposition makes it obvious that the narrator had much  respect and favor for the elephant and because he sees the elephant that way, guiltiness begins to grasp his heart after the elephant is gone. Although his admiration for the elephant sticks out of the piece like a sore thumb, the crowd that he has power over was watching and he yearned for power, just as all humans do, so, he formed an indifferent attitude to bring himself to shoot the elephant three times. Power and control are not the same thing, they juxtapose one another, unlike the narrator thinks. Keeping things under control is his job and he yearns for power, so out of that desire he decides to shoot the elephant believing that will keep everything under control when it would in fact do the opposite. His selfish need for power leads to a loss of control on the situation and on his attitude as it shifts from a confused state of mind, to an indifferent one. In conclusion, Orwell tucks many stylistic devices into his piece Shooting an Elephant for readers to interpret and analyze as they wish. Juxtaposition and figurative language (specifically metaphors and similes) in paragraphs 11-13 disclose the indifferent, yet guilty attitude the narrator has by the end of the essay. His indifference is triggered by the craving of power he has, but his guilt is tripped up by the grandeur of the elephant and his conscience knowing the elephant deserves to live.