Malinowskis Participant-Observation in Modern Anthropology - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2150 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/09/15 Category Advertising Essay Did you like this example? Where does Malinowski’s conceptualization of participant-observation sit in the landscape of modern anthropological fieldwork? A primary objective of the modern ethnographer is to glean insights into the ways people relate to and interact with one another and the world around them. Through participant-observation, Malinowski (1922) offered a valuable tool with which to uncover these insights and understandings, the ethnographer. The ethnographer as research tool has become the basis of much modern anthropological research. As a method, it was a radical departure from the typical approach to fieldwork used in Malinowski’s time which involved techniques that kept the ethnographer distanced and distinct from those they studied (McGee Warms, 2008). In his conceptualization of participant-observation, Malinowski identified three primary objectives for the fieldworker. First, to record the feel and flow of daily life as a member of the community; second, to create a framework of community organization based on a scientific perspective; and third, to collect detailed personal information particular to the community of study (Malinowski, 1922). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Malinowskis Participant-Observation in Modern Anthropology" essay for you Create order These goals and methodologies remain principal to the design and analysis of modern anthropological research. However, they also raise a number of questions about the practical, paradigmatic and ethical difficulties associated with anthropological fieldwork. Discussed below are the goals identified by Malinowski, some of the issues they raise, and how they have come to be interpreted within modern anthropological practice. The premise of participant-observation draws the researcher inside the daily life of those they study, with the many small experiences, interactions, intimacies and resulting integration providing an entree into cultural life not afforded the lone observer or ‘outsider’. Malinowski took great pains to ensure that he eventually came to feel part of the tribe, an insider, ‘joining in himself in what is going on’ rather than simply recording the proceedings (Malinowski, 1922, p. 1). Achieving insider, as opposed to outsider, status within a community of study is a primary goal for many anthropologists in the field. However, the concept of a dichotomous insider/outsider positionality is a complex issue that is coming under increasing scrutiny within the field (Kirby, Greaves Reid, 2006). Malinowski’s (1922) methodology of ethnographer as tool is based in two contradictory imperatives, each centered on location. First, the researcher ust locate themselves intimately within the group under study in order to gain a complete and ‘fleshed out’ account of community life and second, that it is not possible, when located within and as a member of a group, to have the necessary perspective to interpret community life (Malinowski, 1922). Claire Sterk (1996) challenges the ethnographer as insider viewpoint through her work with prostitutes in New York and New Jersey. Sterk’s own realization of her ability to extricate herself from the community and rejoin her own ‘world, a world of safety and stability’ confirmed her status as outsider (Sterk, 1996, p. 2). Nancy Kalow (1996) supports Malinowski’s assertion of the importance of distance when analysing data. She reports her research experience within a group of homeless children in San Francisco as limiting her perspective, something she only identified once she stepped outside of the role of participant-observer and became an observer of her data. This r aises the issue of transition from participant-observer to observer/interpreter. By positioning oneself as interpreter or analyst, the researcher creates an academic distance from those they observe, voiding their participant status. Susan Krieger (1996) extends this argument through her experience as a functioning member of the community under study. Krieger found her membership identification did not automatically afford her insight into the group and, through her efforts to interpret data, she came to realize that she had become estranged from her participants and her study. It was only through a ‘process of reengagement’ that she was able to again locate herself within the group and successfully analyze her data, a process at odds with Malinowski’s second imperative (Krieger, 1996, p 183). Thus, Malinowski’s ‘ethnographer as tool’ is still a guiding principle of anthropological fieldwork. However, the location and position of this tool with relation to the community under study has evolved from Malinowski’s limited perception of its scope. To simply be positioned ‘right among the natives’ (Malinowski, 1922, p. 6) does not automatically provide the ethnographer with an insider’s view. It is this realization that has shaped and is still shaping the way fieldwork in modern anthropology is approached. The focus of anthropology can also been seen to have evolved in terms of the premises upon which Malinowski based his anticipated outcomes of research when compared to those of modern ethnographers. The primary purpose of anthropological research identified by Malinowski was that of understanding tribal life objectively and scientifically, in terms of systems of ‘social machinery’ and presenting this for consumption to a Western audience (Malinowski, 1922, p. 109; McGee Warms, 2008). This raises two issues apparent in modern anthropology. First, the relevance, usefulness and problematic nature of a purely objective paradigm within anthropology; and second, the motivations underlying anthropological research and fieldwork. ‘Striving for the scientific view of things’, a central tenet of Malinowski’s (1922, p. 6) anthropology, has been challenged by modern anthropologists. The challenge raises two primary questions. First, is it possible or useful within such a personal contextual field as anthropology to discount subjectivity as an authentic mode of analysis. Krieger (1996) identifies this as a problem inherent in the writing of social science and argues that through ethnography we are not writing about the other but, in fact, writing about the self. She also touches on the second question, from where have our acceptable scientific/objective truths originated? The objective paradigm underlying social science denies self-expression, narrowing the scope of understanding to that of a predominately male, middle-class, Western, academic one. This point appears to lie outside the realm of Malinowski’s consideration and is indicative of his socio-historical epoch. The purpose of research for Malinowski (1922, p. 25) was to ‘shed light on our own (Western)’ mentality, informing Western science and academia. While modern anthropology still endeavours to uncover systems and social structures it does so from the standpoint of advancement or empowerment of those communities it studies, not to exclusively inform Western science (Kirby, Greaves, Reid, 2006). For example, Annette Lareau’s (1996) study seeks to reveal patterns of achievement in relation to class status and school performance, but it does so with an intention to inform educational policy and effect change within schooling systems. Similarly, Sterk’s (1996) study of prostitutes examines the relationship between prostitution, drugs use and AIDS, searching for cross-cultural patterns in order to address the HIV/AIDS crisis. In this way, anthropology is still approached from a scientific paradigmatic orientation. However, what drives the research has changed. Considering the needs of the community, and how a study is designed to identify and address those needs, has become a powerful impetus for anthropological research. Thus, while modern anthropology shares a similar scientific goal with Malinowski, the goalposts have shifted. The question of who benefits from anthropological study has become an important consideration for any modern anthropological researcher (Kirby, Greaves Reid, 2006). This leads the discussion to the issue of ethics. Malinowski’s (1922, p. 4) third goal involves ‘collection of ethnographic statements’ to be used as ‘documents of native mentality’. These documents consist of information that is personal and belonging to those of whom he is studying. At no time during Malinowski’s description of ethnographic methodology does he address the ethical issues of participant consent, or to what extent his role as researcher will affect t he community he is studying. These are all areas of central importance and concern for the modern anthropologist (Kirby, Greaves Reid, 2006). Before undertaking any anthropological study, it is standard modern practice to obtain consent from those that are being studied. In her study involving school children, parents, teachers and administrators, Lareau (1996) describes in detail the difficulties inherent in this process, but also recognizes that it is a necessary component of fieldwork. The extensive trail of consent outlined by Lareau (1996) raises questions identified by Philippe Bourgois (1991) that are yet to be answered – how far back does the line of consent extend? And how does consent, with regards to participant-observation, colour the relationship between observer and observed? These questions are closely related to the role of researcher and their effects on the community which are highlighted by Sterk (1996), who describes grappling with how involved she is willing to become with her participants and how involved her participants have already become with her. One ethical dilemma identified by Sterk (1996) is that of her role as researcher and what responsibility that carries in terms of intervention. Sterk (1996) cites the dilemma of if and how to intervene when participants who are known to be sharing hypodermic needles are also HIV positive. She cannot address this ethical dilemma other than to retreat to the role of outsider, researcher, ethnographer. This problem is explored by Nancy Scheper-Hughes (1995). Through her work in the field, she raises important questions about the ethnographers’ role within the community. She argues that one must be willing to contribute and give back to the community, not from the perspective of what the anthropologist identifies as the needs of he community, but what the community itself identifies. These ethical questions and difficulties do not lie within the scope of Malinowski’s consideration and highlight the progressive nature of ethnography as a mode of cultural and social (human) analysis. Participant-observation, as Malinowski (1922) conceptualized it, was a process through which the ethnographer entrenched themselves in the daily life and living of the community under study. To ‘grasp the native’s point of view’, to ‘realise his vision of his world’ were the words Malinowski (1922, p. 23) used to summarise this approach to anthropological research. This ideology has shaped modern ethnography more than almost any other influencing factor to date and provides the framework for modern ethnography. However, Malinowski’s vision is one that is situated within the colonial, ethnocentric and localized milieu of his time. Anthropology and the world as we know it today has, in many ways, moved on from a perspective that privileges a solely Western view. It now seeks a richer insight into the ways of others by situating the self as ‘other’, outsider, intruder, subject. The difficulty of becoming a true ‘insider’ looms large for any ethnographer in the field, even when the field is situated within one’s own community. The scope of expected outcomes of anthropological research and ethnography has changed considerably since Malinowski’s (1922) study of Trobriand Islanders. The purpose of his study can be seen as solely to inform Western culture, not as a way of informing or effecting change for those of whom he studied. Today, participant-observation and ethnography are increasingly becoming based on understanding and knowledge relating to effecting positive change within the community of study. Through ethnography the anthropologist, community and wider socio-political powers become informed in ways that are designed to benefit those they study. Finally, an area that reveals itself through its omission from Malinowski’s work is the ethical issue of subject participation in ethnographic research. The concern of ethical fieldwork has become of paramount importance within anthropological research and has serious ramifications in terms of subject consent and the changing role of researcher within the field. In conclusion, Malinowski was a man who, in many ways, was ahead of his time. His contribution to ethnographic method in anthropological research is arguably the most important thus far. However, as people’s understanding and expectation of social science and cultural difference expands, the way in which participant-observation is interpreted also expands and evolves into something that Malinowski may have found difficult to conceive. Malinowski provided a solid framework upon which today’s anthropologists can weave a new interpretation to address an ever changing world of humanity. References Bourgois, P. (1991). Confronting the Ethics of Ethnography: Lessons from fieldwork in Central America. In F. Harrison (Ed. ), Decolonizing Anthropology: Moving further toward an anthropology of liberation. Washington, DC: Association of Black Anthropologists, American Anthropological Association. Kalow, N. (1996). Living Dolls. In B. Jackson E. D. Ives (Eds. ), The World Observed: Reflections on the fieldwork process. USA: The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois. Kirby, S. L. Greaves, L. Reid, C. (2006). Experience Research Social Change: Methods beyond the mainstream (2nd ed. ). Canada: Broadview Press. Krieger, S. (1996). Beyond Subjectivity. In A. Lareau J. Shultz, (Eds. ), Journeys Through Ethnography: Realistic accounts of fieldwork. USA: Westfield Press. Lareau, A. (1996). Common Problems in Fieldwork: A personal essay. In A. Lareau J. Shultz, (Eds. ), Journeys Through Ethnography: Realistic accounts of fieldwork. USA: Westview Press Malinowski, B. 19 22). Argonauts of the Western Pacific. New York: Dutton. McGee, R. J. Warms, R. L. , (Eds. ) (2008). Anthropological Theory: An introduction history (4th ed. ). New York: McGraw Hill Scheper-Hughes, N. (1995). The Primacy of the Ethical: Propositions for a militant anthropology. Current Anthropology, 36(3), 409-420. Sterk, C. (1996). Prostitution, Drug Use and Aids. In C. Smith W. Kornblum (Eds. ), In The Field: Readings on the field research experience. Westport, USA: Preger Press.

The Vision And Purpose Of A Starting Entrepreneur

The Vision and Purpose The vision of a starting entrepreneur is to purchase an ecommerce system to help market her virtual thrift store targeting women between the ages of 15 through 60. The store will offer fashionable and affordable clothing, costume jewelry, shoes, purses, scarves and purses. The entrepreneur read the â€Å"11 Common Ecommerce Mistakes -- and How to Fix Them† by Jennifer Lonoff Schiff and wants to take her advice. Following the majority of the instructions provided by Lonoff’s article the thrift store owner would like to act upon 9 out of 11 key check marks. She wants to focus on the following: a secure ecommerce site protected by HTTPS, seamless site navigation, good quality product images, add product descriptions, a very easy and fast check out process, multiple carrier options, a mobile optimized version of the site, to make the content sharable on social media and having visible contact us information. The purpose of this paper is to explore a world of ecommerce platf orms and to choose one that satisfies all of the owner’s needs. The Challenge One of the major tasks this aspiring entrepreneur has to focus on before launching her new business is to find the absolute best information system technology available. Business owners should know exactly what they want their IS platform to do for them before they unveil their business to customers. Clarity and trust on their vision will help select the appropriate tools. However, when an entrepreneur creates aShow MoreRelatedThe Practice Of Entrepreneurship Through Time And The Global Enterprise1642 Words   |  7 Pagestime and resources, and vision with the overarching goal of holistic success and autonomy (Arthur Hisrich, 2011). The entrepreneur exudes behaviors which foster initiative, orchestrate options, and accept responsibility for the success or failure (Arthur Hisrich, 2011). 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Pollinators free essay sample

Under 1840s conditions, only 20% of scents were altered by chemical reactions within a 1,000-meter radius downwind of the floral source. In the most polluted scenario, only 25% of the scents survived 300 meters downwind. Today, more than 842 million people nearly three times the population of the United States are chronically hungry. 43 Chronic hunger is a profound, debilitating human experience that affects the ability of individuals to work productively, think clearly, and resist disease. it drains economies, destabilizes governments, and reaches across international boundaries. millions are undernourished The food security issues are a global concern. hunger is one of the greatest problems the international community is facingFood security deserves its place in any long-term calculation regarding global security. Widespread chronic hunger causes widespread instability and debilitating poverty and decreases all of our safety, Food insecurity, therefore, causes global insecurity b ecause widespread instability threatens all of our safety. China pollinates by hand now A third of global farm output depends on animal pollination, largely by honey bees. These foods provide 35pc of our calories, most of our minerals, vitamins, and anti-oxidants, and the foundations of gastronomy. Yet the bees are dying – or being killed – at a disturbing pace. The story of colony collapse disorder (CCD) is already well-known to readers of The Daily Telegraph. Some keep hives at home and have experienced this mystery plague, . Albert Einstein, who liked to make bold claims famously said that if the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe, man would have only four years to live. China has its own problems. Crops are now pollinated by hand using feather brushes, a laborious process as one bee colony can pollinate up to 300million flowers a day. Einstein was not wrong. US pollutants are on the declineSpectroscopic images from remote-sensing satelliteshave revealed a decreasing concentration of nitrogen oxides and nitric acid, precursors to ozone. Scientists at NOAA confirmed pollution controls put in place 10 years ago are impacting us today. The air is cleaner in the regions where we have reduced emissions of a key pollutant. The 10 years of before-and-after data revealed a 40 percent reduction in pollution. Satellites have detected a 38% decline in nitrogen dioxide in thestates between 1999 and 2005, itrogen dioxide and nitric oxides are two gases that form a group of pollutants known as nitrogen oxides, When combined with other gases and sunlight, they form ozone, a major air pollutant in smog. Ground-The NOAA study is the first to verify from space that these single-point reductions have had a measurable impact on the atmosphere across the entire region. Cars are the largest source of pollution in the US Transportation is the largest single source of air pollution in the United States. It causes over half of the carbon monoxide, over a third of the nitrogen oxides, and almost a quarter of the hydrocarbons in our atmosphere in 2006. ir pollution is associated with the full life-cycle of cars and trucks. This includes air pollution emitted during vehicle operation, refueling, manufacturing, and disposal. Motor vehicles cause both primary and secondary pollution. Nor is vehicles good for the environment because buses and Diesel-powered commuter trains burn fossil fuels just like automobiles. IndyGo’s buses use more energy and emit more greenhouse gases, per passenger mile, than the average SUV, and extending bus service to remote suburbs will only make things worse. Construction emissions and feeder buses substantially increase emissions even where electric-powered rail transit generates less greenhouse gases than cars or buses, the trains are supported by feeder bus systems that emit lots of greenhouse gases. the feeder buses that support rail transit run fairly empty because many rail riders drive to transit stations. The result is that greenhouse gas emissions on many transit systems increase after opening rail transit lines. Construction of rail transit also consumes huge amounts of energy and releases enormous amounts of greenhouse gases. Highway construction also generates greenhouse gases, but because highways are much more heavily used than most rail transit lines, the emissions per passenger mile are far lower. The history of the last four decades shows that transit cannot and will not play a significant role in saving energy or preventing climate change. spending more money on transit does not significantly reduce driving. Transit uses just about as much energy as cars, so even if we could persuade people to take transit it would not save energy. Transit subsidies have historically had only a trivial effect on ridership. Annual subsidies in real dollars grew by 68 percent. Yet annual ridership grew by only 18 percent. Despite total real subsidies of well over three-quarters of a trillion dollars since 1970, per-capita transit ridership and passenger miles actually declined. transit uses as much energy and generates nearly as much greenhouse gas per passenger mile as urban driving. In 2006, the nations transit systems used an average of 3,444 BTUs and emitted 213 grams of CO2  per passenger mile. And light truck energy efficiencies have rapidly improved, while transit energy efficiencies have declined. If auto manufacturers meet the Obama administrations new fuel-economy standards for 2016 BY25 the average car on the road will consume only 2,600 BTUs and emit only about 186 grams of CO2  per passenger mile—considerably less than most transit systems this rapid improvement is possible because Americas auto fleet almost completely turns over every 18 years. By comparison, cities that invest in rail transit are stuck with the technology they choose for at least 30 years. he fossil-fuel-burning plants used to generate electricity for rail transit emit enormous amounts of greenhouse gases. Washingtons Metrorail system, for example, generates more than 280 grams of CO2  per passenger mile— considerably more than the average passenger car. Pollution masks floral scents pollinators need to locate plants ozone and other constituents of smog destroy at least some of t he floral perfumes that pollinators rely on to find their meals. Bees might suffer from these smog constituents, which pollute urban and rural areas alike. Foragers most likely to be confused by air pollution’s degradation of floral scents are pollinators such as moths and bats. Flower scents vulnerability to ozone and other reactive chemicals is not new. Under pristine conditions, scent molecules could drift unchanged over a kilometer or more, The strength and length of that plume diminished dramatically, however, in the presence of smog constituents. Within just 200 meters, half of the average intensity of a scent plume was lost, The report analyses the potential for many signals that nature depends on to go askew. ozone. In heavily polluted areas, up to 75% of floral markers are destroyed It had already been established that when fragrance molecules wafting downwind meet up with air pollutants, chemical reactions alter the floral scents the fate of three common volatile hydrocarbons emitted by flowers as they encountered increasing levels of ozone, hydroxyl radicals, and nitrate radicals. The researchers plugged these data into a model to test different air pollution scenarios ranging from conditions that prevailed during the 1840s to current summertime conditions in large eastern U. S. cities, where ozone levels can exceed 120 ppb by volume. Under 1840s conditions, only 20% of scents were altered by chemical reactions within a 1,000-meter radius downwind of the floral source. In the most polluted scenario, only 25% of the scents survived 300 meters downwind. Extinction: Honeybees are key to prevent extinction Without the Honeybee, we too would die off eventually from critically low food resources of all kinds. It wouldnt take many generations for use to disappear either. Easily it could happen in our life time There is a real threat to the preservation of this important creature and mans intervention is crucial to their survival. Plants and Food: Pollinators are key to the production of one third of all the world’s food and the survival of 90% of all flowering plants Imagine living in a world without flowers or fruit or coffee or chocolate. Thanks to pollinators like bees, the food we eat and flowers and plants are possible. Butterflies, birds, beetles, bats, wasps and even flies are important in the pollination process. But despite the importance of pollinators, they are taken for granted all too often. More than 1,300 types of plants are grown around the world for food, beverages, medicines, condiments, spices and even fabric. Of these, about 75% are pollinated by animals. More than one of every three bites of food we eat or drink are directly because of pollinators. Pollinators ultimately play a role in the majority of what we eat and consume. Pollinators are vital to creating and maintaining the habitats and ecosystems that many animals rely on for food and shelter. Worldwide, over half the diet of fats and oils comes from crops pollinated by animals. They facilitate the reproduction in 90% of the world’s flowering plants. Today, more than 842 million people nearly three times the population of the United States are chronically hungry. 3 Chronic hunger is a profound, debilitating human experience that affects the ability of individuals to work productively, think clearly, and resist disease. it drains economies, destabilizes governments, and reaches across international boundaries. In sub-Saharan Africa, millions are undernourished and millions more live on a dollar a day, making it the most po verty-stricken region in the world today. The food security issues of this region are a global concern. Together with terrorism, hunger is one of the greatest problems the international community is facing. Food security deserves its place in any long-term calculation regarding global security. Widespread chronic hunger causes widespread instability and debilitating poverty and decreases all of our safety. Global Economy: Pollinator loss would cause worldwide economic loss of almost $400 billion The worldwide economic value of the pollination service provided by pollinators, Was â‚ ¬153 billion* in 2005 for the main crops that feed the world. This figure amounted to 9. 5% of the total value of the world agricultural food production. Pollinator disappearance would translate into a consumer surplus loss estimated between â‚ ¬190 to â‚ ¬310 billion. The decline of pollinators would have main effects on three main crop categories fruits and vegetable were especially affected with a loss estimated at â‚ ¬50 billion each, followed by edible oilseed crops with â‚ ¬39 billion. Potera 08 [Potera, Carol, Has Written for EHP since 1996. She Also Writes for Microbe, Genetic Engineering News, and the American Journal of Nursing. Http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC2516566/.   US National Library of Medicine. National Institutes of Health, Aug. 2008. Web. 8 Nov. 2012. .] Trudell, 2005 (J. D. Candidate 2006, Robert H. Fall, Food Security Emergencies And The Power Of Eminent Domain: A Domestic Legal Tool To Treat A Global Problem, 33 Syracuse J. Intl L. Com. 277, Lexis) Prichard, Ambros E. , AEP. Einstein Was Right Honey Bee Collapse Threatens Global Food Security. The Telegraph (n. d. ): n. pag. 6 Feb. 2011. Web. 5 Feb. 2013. NOAA 7[NOAA, The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Is a Federal Agency F ocused on the Condition of the Oceans and the Atmosphere. Whats In Our Air? Atmospheric Scientists Map Pollution Decrease.   ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 1 May 2007. Web. 10 Nov. 2012. .] UCS 8 [The Union of Concerned Scientists, leading science-based nonprofit working for a healthy environment, â€Å"Cars, Trucks, and Air Pollution†, http://www. ucsusa. org/clean_vehicles/why-clean-cars/air-pollution-and-health/cars-trucks-air-pollution. html O’Toole, 12 senior fellow at the Cato Institute   (Randal, â€Å"Indy Transit Task Force Misses the Mark,† http://www. cato. org/publications/commentary/indy-transit-task-force-misses-mark O’Toole 2009 senior fellow at the Cato Institute   (Randal, Congressional Testimony, â€Å"On Transit and Climate†, http://www. ato. org/testimony/ct-ro-20090707. html) Raloff 08[Janet Raloff, has been reporting at  Science News  for more than three decades on the environment, energy, science policy, agriculture and nutrition. She earned undergraduate and graduate degrees from the Medill School of Journalism at Northwestern University (with an elective major in physics) May 200 8, Journal of Science News, Environment: pollution may confuse pollinators: smog dilutes scents needed to guide floral foragers, Vol. 73, Issue 16] Trudell, 2005 (J. D. Candidate 2006, Robert H. , Fall, Food Security Emergencies And The Power Of Eminent Domain: A Domestic Legal Tool To Treat A Global Problem, 33 Syracuse J. Intl L. Com. 277, Lexis) Potera 08 [Potera, Carol, Has Written for EHP since 1996. She Also Writes for Microbe, Genetic Engineering News, and the American Journal of Nursing. Http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC2516566/.   US National Library of Medicine. National Institutes of Health, Aug. 2008. Web.

We as a society are fortunate. We have the luxury Essay Example For Students

We as a society are fortunate. We have the luxury Essay of advanced technology to include: computers, telephones, video teleconferencing equipment, cellular phones, beepers, and hospitals with the latest gadgets and gizmos. Our technology is available only because of documented historical accounts. Our idea of work is having to get in our vehicles and driving to our destination and sometimes sitting behind a desk all day to push paper; the worst any of us suffers is a traffic jam here or there or worse, a construction site. Imagine life in the late eighteenth century. People in this era had to deal with not only getting up at dawn to milk the cows, but toiling for hours on end with animals that refused to budge. We will write a custom essay on We as a society are fortunate. We have the luxury specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Individuals in this era did not have the luxury of using the technological tools we have today. They could not pull out their cell phones if the mule decided to have a bad day or if they injured themselves on the job. Achieving prosperity was not easily done! during this century. The demands placed upon them, required that farmers and merchants work endlessly to provide for their families. Through our education, we have learned that farmers worked and played very hard. We are not however, taught in great detail the vital role a midwife played. Midwives had literally to be available at the drop of a hat to attend a birth. If she was not there, it could cause potential problems for the mother-to-be and the newborn. Martha Ballard, a woman that is not generally listed in history books, played a vital role in the latter part of the eighteenth century. She is a woman of great strength and character who goes above the call of duty in her chosen profession that of a Midwife. Martha Ballard is a woman who has not only lived through the Revolution, but who has kept a diary detailing the gains and losses that we made in political, economic and social transformations during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries (Ulrich, 32)! . Mrs. Ballards diary has been around for many years. Historians who know about the diary seldom know what to do with it (Ulrich, 8). Some feel that her diary is boring and filled with too many details of domestic chores and pastimes to be worthy of any great exploration (Baker, 14). That Martha Ballard kept her diary is one small miracle; that her descendants saved it is another (Ulrich, 346). This statement speaks volumes. How often have we come across documents our ancestors left behind and just threw them away? How often did we sit and examine those documents or analyze their meaning? Speculating on why Ballard kept the diary and why her family saved it, Ulrich highlights the documents usefulness for historians (Mullaney, 102). Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, an Associate Professor of History (at the time of publication) at the University of New Hampshire in Durham, took the time to evaluate Martha Ballards diary and connect the missing links in the role women played d! uring the early years of colonial America. Her ardent studies led her to believe that the diary was more than just the detailing of domestic duties it was describing a lost substructure of eighteenth century life a decidedly female one (Baker, 14). Martha Ballard was more than a midwife. She was a historian, mortician, pharmacist, nurse, farmer, mother, and wife (Ulrich 40). Perhaps it was a sense of history or a craving for stability, perhaps only a practical need to keep birth records, that first motivated Martha to keep a diary. Thee number of childn I have Extracted since I came to Kennebeck I find by written account other Calculations to be 405, she wrote on December 31, 1791. .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096 , .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096 .postImageUrl , .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096 , .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096:hover , .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096:visited , .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096:active { border:0!important; } .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096:active , .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096 .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .udda90a11e01842f3cac6a474726bf096:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Corporate Finance (Ulrich,20)Martha was fifty years old when she began documenting her experiences crossing the Kennebec River and events of that era. She moved to this area at the tender of age nineteen when she married the loyal Tory and surveyor, Ephraim Ballard. She shows us a history of the female economy and how women were regarded. When reading diaries, one expects to find statements about the people the author meets, not in Marthas diary.